TX 

6G1 



Bulletin No. 56. 

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 



268 



HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS 



OF 



mSTRUCTION IR COOKmG 



IN THE 



PUPITC SCHOOLS OF NEW YORK CITY. 



REPOKTEl- BY 

]VIrs. LOXJISK K. TJiOGrj'^tl 

WITH AN INTRODUCriON BV 




WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

189 9. 



•^ "T 



Bulletin No. 56. 

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 



268 



6^jLc^ 



HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS 



OF 



mSTRUCTION m COOKING 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF NEW YORK CITY. 



REPORTED BY 

]Vtrs. LOUISE E. HOG-AIST, 

WITH AN INTKODCCTION BY 

A. C. TRUE, Fh. D. 




WASHINGTON: . 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1899. 



w 






^ LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



u. s. derartment of agrictjlture, 

Office of Experiment Stations, 

Washington, D. C, January 25, 18D9. 

Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the history 
and ijresent status of instruction in cooking in the public schools of 
New York City, prepared by Mrs. Louise E. Hogan, under the super- 
vision of Prof. W. O. Atwater, special agent in charge of nutrition 
investigations, in accordance with iustructions given by the Director 
of this Office. 

The teaching of cooking as a branch of manual-trainiug" courses in 
the primary and grammar grades of the public schools has been rapidly 
increasing in favor among school oflBcers and the people in different 
parts of the country. In connection with the nutrition investigations 
in charge of this Office numerous inquiries have been received regarding 
the scope and meaning of such courses and the practicability of their 
further introduction into the common schools. To meet the evident 
demand for information on this subject it has been thought desirable to 
prepare an account of the progress and present development of the 
teaching of cooking in one of our great educational centers. 

In the collection of material for this report substantial aid has been 
given by Dr. E. D. Shimer, associate superintendent of public schools 
in ]^ew York City, Mrs. M. E. Williams, supervisor of cookery in the 
New York schools, and other officers and teachers connected with the 
schools of that city. 

The rei^ort is transmitted with the recommendation that it be pub- 
lished as Bulletin No. m of this Office. 

Respectfully, A. C. True, 

Director, 
Hon. James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 

3 



CONTENTS. 



Pago. 

Introduction ^ 

Report on cooking in the public schools of New York City 10 

Appendix , 4:1 

Syllabus of lesson on water 41 

Pupils' exercises on lesson on water 42 

Syllabus of lesson on air 43 

Pupils' exercises on lesson on air 45 

Syllabus of lesson on food — its chemistry 46 

Pupil's exercise on lesson on food — its chemistry 46 

Syllabus of lesson on cereals 47 

Pupil's exercise on lesson on cereals 49 

Syllabus of lesson on bread 50 

Pupils' exercises on lesson on bread 52 

Syllabus of lesson on baking powder — quick breads 53 

Pupil's exercise on lesson on quick breads 53 

Syllabus of lesson on the potato 54 

Pupils' exercises on lesson on the potato 54 

Syllabus of lesson on milk 55 

Pupil's exercise on lesson on milk 57 

Syllabus of lesson on eggs 58 

Pupil's exercise on lesson on eggs 59 

Syllabus of lesson on meat 60 

Pupils' exercises on lesson on meat 61 

Syllabus of lesson on beverages — tea and col uo 62 

Pupils' exercises on lesson on tea and coffee 63 

Syllabus of lesson on digestion 64 

Pupils' exercises on lesson on digestion 65 

Syllabus of lesson on fuel and combustion 66 

Pupil's exercise on lesson on fuel and combustion 67 

Syllabus of lesson on chemistry of cleaning 67 

Pupil's exercise on lesson on chemistry of cleaning 69 

Notes from the children's exercise books 69 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



rase. 

Plate I. Girl cooking 41 

II. Buucli of wheat 50 

III. Fig. 1, Girl jjaring potatoes ; Fig. 2, Girl kneadiug bread 52 

IV. Fig. 1, Yeast plants as seen under the microscope; Fig. 2, Cross 

section of grain of wheat as seen under the microscope 53 

V. Fig. 1, Milk as it appears under the microscoi>e; Fig. 2, Potato starch 

as it appears under the microscope.. 54 

VI. Diagram of cuts of beef - . . 61 

VII. Fig. 1, Diagram of cuts of beef; Fig. 2, Diagram of cuts of lamb 61 

Vni. Fig. 1, Small loin, or porterhouse; Fig. 2, limnyi of beef; Fig. 3, 

Potato 61 

IX. Fig. 1, A piece of beef as seen under the microscope; Fig. 2, Indi- 
vidual beef fibers as seen under the microscope 61 

X. Fig. 1, Branches of tea and coft'ee ; Fig. 2, Cereals 63 

XI. Fig. 1, Apparatus for generating oxygen; Fig. 2, Articles used in 

cleaning G7 

XII. Fig. 1, Sewer traps: J, co-trap; B, o-trap; Fig. 2, Sink, showing 

"half-co" trap 69 

6 



HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS OF INSTRUCTION IN COOKING 
IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF NEW YORK CITY. 



INTRODUCTION. 

By A. C. Truk, Ph. D., 
Director, Office of Experiment Stations. 

Courses in manual training, including among numerous subjects 
instruction in cooking, have in recent years been widely introduced, 
into public and private schools of different grades in tliis country. 
While at first encountering many objections regarding both their the- 
oretical and i)ractical value, they have steadily increased in favor among 
school officers and the people who sujjport and patronize the schools. 
It has been found possible, as regards many of the subjects taught in 
these courses, so to adjust the relations of the practical exercises to the 
general educational features as to maintain the interest of pupils in 
the more routine processes of education, while at the same time fur- 
nishing them with some degree of practical skill and knowledge of 
direct utility to them in the various industries on which the livelihood 
of the masses of our population depend. 

Another effect of manual training, which has already been observed 
and which will increase in importance as such instruction is more widely 
diffused, is largely to divest the common industries of those elements 
of drudgery which tend to make them very distasteful to our more 
intelligent youth. When the operations of the household,^^ the farm, 
and the shop are shown to call for trained skill and scientific knowl- 
edge in order that they may be most easily and efticiently performed, it 
becomes apparent that these vocations, as well as the so-called profes- 
sions, offer abundant opportunities for the exercise of educated brains. 
Life in these industries is no longer a dull round of routine without 
beauty or the hope of better things. ''I am going to an agricultural 
college," said a farm boy this summer, "because I believe that what I 
shall learn there will enable me to get more out of my land and give 
me more interest and pleasure in my daily work on the farm.'' 

It is true that such courses are of so comparatively recent introduc- 
tion into our schools that they are far from" perfect in many of their 
details and the opinions of experts are widely at variance on many ques- 

7 



8 

tious affecting the exact extent and scope of industrial education. 
The general usefulness of such education is, however, thoroughly estab- 
lished and much has been accomplished in working out its adjustment 
to the other departments of our educational system. 

The teaching of cooking and other subjects connected with domes- 
tic science and practice in our colleges, especially those receiving 
appropriations from the National Treasury under the Morrill Act, spe- 
cial cooking schools, principally under j)rivate auspices in our large 
cities, and courses in cooking for young pupils in private and public 
schools in many localities have attracted a rapidly increasing number 
of students and engaged the services of competent and enthusiastic 
teachers. Begun in a comparatively simple and practical way, tliese 
courses have steadily demanded more elaborate equipment, more sys- 
tematic and thorough instruction, and a larger basis of scientific and 
pedagogical principles and facts. 

Fortunately, the time has also been ripe for the rapid development of 
original investigations at home and abroad along the lines of chemical 
and biological studies relating to the food and nutrition of man. 
Among the agencies which have enjoyed relatively ample means for 
the prosecution of scientific inquiries in this direction have been the 
Division of Chemistry and the Office of Experiment Stations of this 
Department. Much of this work has been done in cooperation with 
colleges, experiment stations, "social settlements," and other organiza- 
tions in different parts of the country. The investigations pursued by 
other Divisions of the Department have also contributed considerable 
information of value to students in domestic science. Special efforts 
have been made to acquaint officers and teachers of schools of difler- 
ent grades with the results of this work and the publications of the 
Department are now widely used in connection with such courses of 
instruction. The accumulating mass of accurate data in this line of 
scientific inquiry has enabled teachers to systematize and strengthen 
their lessons on foods and cooking, as well as on the general principles 
of nutrition. It has also shown the necessity of more thorough train- 
ing of teachers of domestic science in order that their instruction may 
be based on definite knowledge and that they may be able to distin- 
guish between what is mere theory or matter of opinion and what is 
actually ascertained fact. 

As interest in the teaching of topics relating to the food and nutri- 
tion of man has grown in this country this Department has been more 
frequently called upon to furnish information regarding the scope and 
purpose of such courses and the practicability of their further intro- 
duction into our common schools. To meet this growing demand it 
has been thought desirable to collate and publish an account of the 
l)rogress and present development of the teaching of cookery in one of 
our great educational centers. It is believed that this report will also 
be of service in showing the defects, as well as the excellencies, of such 



courses as are ordinarily given in our schools. It will constitute mate- 
rial for the further discussion of the principles and details of such 
instruction with reference to tbeir perfection. It should, therefore, be 
understood that the course and sample lessons herewith presented are 
not given because they are believed to show a system which should be 
followed in all its details, but rather because they are exponents of a 
successful attempt to introduce the teaching of cookiug into the com- 
mon schools of a large city, and indicate a serious purpose on the part 
of oflBcers and teachers managing this course to adapt it to the actual 
requirements of their schools and to change and improve it from time 
to time as added experience shows ways in which it may be improved. 
Another object in issuing this report is to show to those who are 
vitally interested in the progress of the common schools in country dis- 
tricts, because they themselves are residents of our rural communities, 
something of the organized eft'ort which is being made to adapt the 
courses of instruction in our city schools to the actual needs of the 
youth as they go out into the real work of life. A great revolution is 
going on in our educational system in the towns and cities. In a num- 
ber of different directions opportunities are being offered the pupils in 
our public schools in the larger communities to x>repare themselves 
directly for the different industries of the home, the shop, and the fac- 
tory. This movement has as yet hardly reached our rural schools, and 
very many school officers in our smaller communities are not aware of 
the progress which has been made in this direction in the towns. It is 
believed, therefore, that a report on the teaching of cookery in New 
York City is well worthy the attention of people living on farms and 
in villages. If it is a good thing to have the girls of New Yotk City 
taught better methods of cooking and the reasons why good house- 
keeping is vitally connected with the health and general welfare of our 
people, surely it must be equally desirable that up-to-date information 
on such subjects should be imparted in our country schools. It is true 
there are great difficulties to be overcome before such instruction can 
be efficiently given in sparsely settled regions, but if once the principle 
is established in the public mind that such instruction should be an 
essential part of a common school course, without doubt ways and 
means will be devised for its general dissemination. 



REPORT ON COOKING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF 
NEW YORK CITY. 

By Louise E. Hogan. 

There is a growing interest in the subject of the food and nutrition 
of man throughout the country. Our people are awakening to the 
importance of the practical application of scientific research in this 
direction, and the question naturally arises, What place should this 
work take in the schools and to what extent can it be introduced? 
The history of the movement that brought the teaching of cooking into 
the public schools of New York City may serve to show the pedagogi- 
cal as well as the practical value of this branch of manual training. 
The object of presenting such a history is naturally constructive and is 
intended to arouse further interest in this important educational move- 
ment, to show its usefulness by the results already attained, and also 
to suggest methods for its further extension. 

In 1887 the board of education of New York City, after a very care- 
ful inquiry into the subject of manual training, concluded that it might 
be well to incorporate this work into the public school system and the 
committee in charge stated it to be their opinion that the introduction 
of what is generally known as manual training would be an improve- 
ment in the course of study. 

In consequence the board caused to be prepared a course in manual 
training which began at the lowest primary grade and progressed 
through every succeeding grade of the primary and grammar school 
grades. This course was placed under the immediate control of the 
committee on the course of study which was given authority to deter- 
mine what modifications, if any, should be made in the course, and what 
schools should be permitted to introduce it upon application of the 
boards of school trustees. The first school to adopt the new course 
entered upon it February 1, 1888, and by the end of December, 1890, no 
less than 19,476 pupils were pursuing the regular manual training 
course of study. 

Commissioner Holt when presenting to the board the first report of the 
committee on the course of study in regard to manual training said : 

The committee on the course of study, to which was referred the subject of the 
introduction of manual training- into our common schools, respectfully report that 
they have given to the matter the careful, deliberate, and extensive consideration 
and investigation which its importance demands. 

Inquiry into its origin and development in Russia, Germany, France, England, and 
other foreign countries shows that its leading purpose in Eurojie is to foster industrial 
skill and to produce specialists — artisans — in order to advance the interests which 
10 



11 

these manufacturing nations have in domestic and foreign trade. Only incidental 
reference is had in most cases to its general educational, disciplinary, and intellectual 
relations. 

It also appears that the department of education now generally known as manual 
training was introduced into this country by certain broad-minded, practical educa- 
tors, to whom its educational possibilities presented themselves as its chief claim 
for adoption. 

Under the lead and example of the educators referred to, much of the detail of the 
plans and purposes of the European system has been judiciously modified, and the 
sul)ject made more fit to be incorporated into our system of popular instruction. 

It has long been a matter of deej) regret and even of apprehension that a large 
proportion of our young people are growing up with a positive distaste for manual 
labor. With an ever-increasing number almost any other form of occupation is 
preferred. 

The introduction of manual training in some one or more of its various forms into 
many of the schools of higher educational institutions of the country has already 
begun to exert an influence toward bringing about a better state of things. It can 
not be doubted that this result must become more and more manifest when this 
training in suitably modified forms becomes the common possession of schools and 
pupils of every grade. 

After consideration of the facts and arguments presented your committee has 
come to the following conclusions: 

(1) That the introduction of what is generally known as niamial training would 
be an improvement to our present course of study. 

(2) That manual training is admissible into our schools only as a means of general, 
and not of special, education. 

(3) That, notwithstanding the misdirection of some of the efforts heretofore made 
in manual training, there arc certain manual operations which time and experience 
have sufficiently tested to demonstrate their usefulness and their availability. 

These operations have the following characteristics : They are such as to lead the 
pupil to acquire correct conceptions of form through the careful and systematic 
discijiline of his sense perceptions and to require as a test of the accuracy of these 
conceptions their correct manual embodiment in material, and further, to give a 
practical knowledge of natural laws and of the qualities of materials. 

They are within the scope of the faculties of all children whose minds and bodies 
are in a normal condition. Their results are of general, if not universal, utility as 
personal acquirements, apart from the educational value of the process. They are 
comparatively inexpensive, and their introduction will require but little room. 
They can be taught with but moderate addition to our present force of teachers. 
For such instruction the following, which are not included in our present course of 
study, seem eminently suitable, viz, carpenter work, modeling in clay, construction 
work, drawing to scale, sewing, cooking. 

By judicious modification and extension the well-established methods of the 
kindergarten may readily be made available for the primary and lowest grammar 
school grades, so as to form with the subject already suggested a complete and 
continuous course. 

(4) That training in these branches, if adopted, should not be for a few selected 
hundreds of school children, but should be made an essential part of the authorized 
course of study for all. 

(5) That the regularity and continuity of school work should not be interrupted 
by sending out pupils for instruction elsewhere than in the school building to which 
they belong. 

(6) That the length of the school session should not be extended beyond the present 
limit. 

(7) That provision must be made for suspending the introduction of some of the 
proposed work in certain schools. The carpenter work and the cooking will require 



12 

the setting apart of a room for each purpose. This in some schools it would 1>e 
impossible to do at once. It would probably not be possible in the first year to 
introduce the kitchen and workshop into more than one-,third of the grammar- 
school departments. 

Duriug their deliberations the committee adopted resolutions for the 
establishment of this work, one of which reads as follows : 

Resolved, That in the girls' grammar schools cooking should be taught in the third 
and second grades.' That instruction in cooking and shop work should be suspended 
as to each school until a suitable room is provided through the action of the trustees. 
That the instruction in shop work, cooking, and sewing should be under the direc- 
tion of special teachers, who should be licensed, employed, and paid in the manner 
now provided for special teachers. That to secure efficient instruction an additional 
assistant superintendent should be appointed whose special duty should be to super- 
vise under the city superintendent all the work in manual training in the primary 
and grammar schools. 



The estimated expense of introducing the kitchen outfits was $2( 
per department, 60 departments, $12,000; kitchen supplies, $100 per 
department, 60 departments, $6,000. The estimated expense of main- 
taining the kitchen outfit in succeeding years was $1,200, and for 
kitchen supplies $6,000. In this report mention is made of two schools 
in New York City in which cooking was already taught. One of them 
was the Wilson Industrial School for Girls, in which school the i)upils 
were under 12 years of age, and who after leaving generally became 
self-supporting. The teachers of this school stated that the kind of 
instruction given waked the children up mentally, and was favorable 
for fitting them for the duties of active life. In another school, at No. 9 
University Place, New York, an industrial institution under Miss Alice 
Burns, consisting of several classes which met at different times, there 
was an excellently equipped cooking room for a class of sixty. 

Going into practical operation in the year 1888, manual training 
gradually commended itself to teachers and trustees until it nearly 
reached the limit prescribed by the board as proper, in view of the 
necessity for what may be called conservative progress in the experi- 
mental stage of a new and important departure. 

The report on this work made by City Superintendent John Jasper 
for the first year after its introduction is as follows: 

This highly interesting method of instruction has been pursued in twenty schools 
and departments during the last year. * * * The total numer of pupils in these 
schools and departments is about ten thousand, and steadily, carefully, and en- 
couragingly have these children worked in the course mapped out by the l)oard of 
education. Owing to the shortness of the period during which the experiment has 
been tried, it would be unwise to express a definite opinion in regard to the future 
of manual training. From present appearances, however, it is certain that the 
children have a love for it, and the parents have a keen appreciation of its advan- 
tages. The progress that has been made in the initial stage of a new and untried 
method is to be highly commended, and the readiness with which most of the 
teachers have fallen into line in the efi'ort to help the good work along is greatly 

1 At this time there were in the primary schools 6 and in the grammar schools 8 
grades, the first being the highest. 



13 

to their credit. They aim at opening channels for the devt'lnpment of manly and 
womanly qualities, hitherto more or less unobserved or unpopular, that must and 
will have a powerful bearing on the future happiness and prospects of the nation. 
All the branches of this course of study are thriving — and there is an important 
point — all the branches, separation of them being impossible. People who dream 
of pedagogic branches and of manual-training branches in the same department as 
separate and unrelated things have not yet grasped the subject. The manual of this 
course of study has been arranged so that all the branches of education are inter- 
woven in such a manner as to make a distinction impossible. It does not mean 
merely the training of the hand; it means the training of oiir every faculty. The 
fundamental truths underlying the manual training methods should, above all 
things, be known and understood by the teachers and public generally. They aim 
at no specialty of any kjnd — no carpentry, no art in designing or modeling, cooking, 
or sewing, no geometry or mechanical drawing as such — they simply aim at a rational 
means to obtain and transmit useful knowledge. 

In this report for 1888 mention is made of the employment of two 
special cooking teachers under the manual-training course — one at 
$1,200 and one at $600 — and the equipment of kitchens in five grammar 
schools at an expense of $3,392.09. A further note is made of an 
exj^euditure of $68 for kitchen supplies. 

The committee in charge of this work states that it has reason to 
believe that further application will be made for the full manual-train- 
ing course when the necessary accommodations can be found, and there 
should, therefore, be provision made for a moderate increase in the 
number of manual-training schools; that to maintain the manual- 
training course during the year 1889 in the schools where it is now in 
operation there will be required, approximately, $10,000, and it is rec- 
ommended that this amount be increased in the annual estimate to 
$25,000, so as to provide for an increase in the number of such schools. 

The principal of 6ne grammar school reports that she has observed 
upon the part of her pupils increased mental activity and a greater 
interest in all their studies. She says further: 

As to its moral aspect, I find it an educational element of much value. It incul- 
cates the dignity of labor, cultivates habits of industry, and opens to girls new ave- 
nues for self-support. Parents of the pupils express themselves heartily in favor of 
the new course, and the results generally are so favorable that your committee may 
feel somewhat repaid for the great labor and expense incurred by them. 

Elizabeth Oavannah, the principal of another grammar school, 
reports : 

The cooking has been enthusiastically received by the pupils and never have I 
seen more thoroughly interested workers than there are in that branch of the course. 
Many report from week to week the results of home work, thus giving proof of the 
hold it has upon them, and parents are constantly signifying their gratification at 
its introduction. 

The study of the chemistry of cooking and an intelligent application of this 
knowledge can not fail to work a complete revolution in the homes of thousands 
who now suffer from ignorance of the simplest laws governing the proper prepara- 
tion of food. 

Its educational advantage is manifested in the gradual development of self- 
reliance and judgment in pupils who are particularly weak in these respects, and 
in corresponding improvement in those who are naturally stronger. 



14 

W. H. J. Sieberg, the principal of a third grammar school, reports: 

There has beeu no deterioratiou in the eifectiveness of study in the pedagogic 
branches. The children have entered with a will and with zest into the manual- 
training branches, and the results have been a pleasurable surprise to them, their 
teachers, and myself. Shop work and kitchen have been aids to discipline. 

Another i)rincipal reports : 

My experience thus far in industrial education in our schools leads me to conclude 
that the course of instruction in sewing and cooking is beneficial to the pupils of 
our school, inasmuch as the systematic and philosophic methods laid down for both 
of these departments must necessarily result in inoculating habits of attention, 
neatness, and judgment which will benefit children not only in these special 
branches but in all others during school life, and which will prove of inestimable 
value in after life. 

The following notes on the manual-training course of study appear 
in tlie annual report of the board of education following the one quoted 
from above: 

This highly interesting course has proved very successful, not only in the spread 
of the schools, but also in the satisfactory manner in which it has been carried on. 
One year ago the whole matter was tentative and many expressed gi'ave doubts as 
to the feasibility ; to-day it has been made in modified form the basis of the general 
course of study to be pursued by the schools in the city. 

The cooking school course, as outlined in the report for 1889, is as 
follows: 

CooJcing. — Materials of the human body; waste and repair of tissues. 

Digestibility. — Cooking solid materials to prepare them for digestion. 

N^iitritiveness. — Kutritive values of food; j^alatability. 

Food elements. — Mineral; starch and sugar; fats; albuminoids. 

Related facts. — Physical effects of heat on albumen ; on starch ; on 
gluten, etc. ; proper temperatures for various purposes; chemical effects 
of overheating and of yeast; important function of the sugar in flour. 

Utensils. — Their selection, use, and preservation. 

Purchasing food. — Discrimination as to wholesome and unwholesome; 
choice of parts. 

The '■'■germ theory.'''' — Applied to foods. 

Practical exercises in cooking. — These involve simple applications of 
facts and principles taught. 

In 1889, at the twenty-seventh annual convocation of the University 
of the State of New York, held July 9 to 11, an address on the possibili- 
ties and limitations of manual training in the public schools of I*^ew York 
City was presented by Prof, Edgar D. Shimer, then professor of philoso- 
phy at the New York City University and now associate superintendent 
of public schools for the borough of Manhattan and the Bronx, New 
York City. In this address Dr. Shimer first defines manual training as 
it was then accepted by the New York school authorities before outlining 
the possibilities and showing the limitations. 

In his report he alludes to the want of skilled teaching in manual 
training, and says this points toward the restoration of the old Satur- 



15 

day normal schools or some other means for the further training of 
teachers. He speaks of the voluntary conferences among the teachers 
after school as furnishing supj^lementary aid to individual effort. He 
says: 

Superintendent Jasper continues tixecl in his determination not to approve a course 
of manual training adapted to a select few with special aptitude, or a course in which 
any of the branches are taught chiefly as ends in themselves. If it is good for the 
few to develop and round out their lives, he claims that it is good for the many; if 
cooking is to he taught merely as cooking, he is opposed to it; but if instruction in 
the philosophy of cookiiig, the chemistry of food, and its hygienic application is 
such as to make more thoughtful and intelligent pupils, the dishes being mere inci- 
dents, he favors it. It is on this broad sense of manual training that the work in 
the New York public schools is based, and the distinct claim is put forth that New 
York City is the first city in the United States that has made general manual train- 
ing a part of the regular course. 

I'he main reflex advantage of this movement is that the people are inclined to keep 
their children at school longer, because the children themselves are more inclined to 
stay. 

If manual training were admissible on no higher ground than this, it would be a 
proper expedient to serve as a magnet for holding the child while his development 
proceeds on those lines of the curriculum which are acknowledged by all to lead to 
mental and moral jiower. 

Whatever interpretation or restriction others may put upon the term, it is plain 
that in New York public schools numual training is taken to be the development of 
mind in the training of thought acquisition and thought expression by other than 
merely verbal means — by operations performed with the aid of the hands, by the 
manipulations of materials, by appealing to the sense of touch and to muscular sen- 
sibility, or the sixth sense, as well as to the senses of sight and sound. Indeed, wise 
provisions have been made for the training even of the lowest senses of smell and 
taste, so that on the whole the manual-training idea comprehensively viewed is a 
more complete scientific and systematic sense training than has been in vogue; a 
fuller presentation to the mind of sensations, the simple factors or elemejits of men- 
tal life, out of which by the elaborative powers of the conscious self the complicated 
phenomena of a higher mental life are evolved. 

Dr. Shimer says further : 

It would be a work of supererogation to enter upon any argument to show, by 
a priori principles, why the facts reported by the practical workers in manual 
training in New York City should be just what they are. Expression of thought in 
any form gives the best assurance of its acquisition. This working principle has 
been acted on under all theories of education time out of mind. Iti measuring, 
matching, marking, the child is not only systematically furnished with a store of 
concepts through its primary perceptions, but these are at the same time riveted. 
The work furnishes, too, an admirable outlet for the surplus store of nervous energy 
found in childhood. It exercises, why should it not therefore develop, the attention, 
judgment, and especially the will f It calls for exactness and promotes habits of 
persistence, industry, fidelity, thoroughness, honesty, and self-reliance. 

Whatever may be said of the indirect results of physical culture, respect for manual 
labor, and handiness for the emergencies of daily life, the benefits of manual train- 
ing in the New York public schools are not conceived to be social or economic or 
utilitarian. 

The possibilities, both theoretical and practical, point in a different direction, as 
I have tried to show. Some of these possibilities have become certainties under 
the very eyes of expert teachers, whose judgment was held in abeyance until they 



16 

had exchanged theories for facts. Such limitatious as are extrinsic to the subject 
largely depend for their removal upon the activity of the committee of the board 
of education. 

Such other limitations as appear to be intrinsic, but really lie in a misconception 
of the end in view, or of the means to be applied, will be removed by the progres- 
sive training of the teachers, for in this, and in this almost alone, lies every educa- 
tional hope for the future. 

The experiment was looked upon as successful a year ago. It is no longer an 
experiment. In every case expectations have been more than realized, and there is 
no doubt that manual training has come into New York City public schools to stay. 

Principal F. S. Capen, of the New Paltz Normal School, in his 
remarks on this report said: 

A wrong opinion prevails with reference to the subject, and this is the reason 
why it meets with so much opposition. I heard a paper and discussion in the State 
association at Brooklyn, and the subject met there with very much opposition. It 
meets with opposition oftener, perhaps, than it meets with favor. When I have 
been asked whether I favor it or not, I have always so far said I do not know. 
But I am prepared to say here, in the light of the paper just read, that if that is 
manual training I am in favor of it. The opinion prevails largely with teachers, 
and still more largely with those who send their children to our schools, that man- 
ual training means the learning of a trade, that it means making mechanics, cooks, 
seamstresses, etc. That, of course, we can not do in the schools, and it is a mistake 
to undertake it. Just as much a mistake to undertake to do that as it is to make a 
theologian, or a lawyer, or a teacher in a college. It can not be done and do thor- 
ough work. If manual training is to be used to make men and women more compe- 
tent to whatever they undertake to do in life, then w^e can use it. 

In the annual report to the board of education for 1890 the number 
of schools and departments pursuing the manual-training course of 
study is stated to be 37, and the whole number of pupils registered in 
this course is 19,904, with an average attendance of 19,482. The 
schools consist of male grammar departments 7, female grammar 
departments 8, mixed grammar departments 1, primary departments 
13, and primary schools 8. 

There were 185 classes in sewing, containing 5,720 pupils; 26 classes 
in cooking, containing 891 pupils; and 52 classes in workshop (wood 
working), containing 1,690 pupils. 

All the pupils received instruction in the English branches and in 
drawing (free-hand and mechanical), and modeling in clay was carried 
on from the lowest primary through five of the eight grammar grades. 

The course pursued in this class of schools seemed to be meeting with 
general approval, and the instruction was efficient. 

The report states that — 

It was not the purpose to make of the pupils either artists or artisans, seamstresses 
or cooks, but it was the purpose of the framers of the new plan to determine 
definitely whether the manual-training appliances and methods would prove as 
effective educational agents and forces as appeared probable. 

The course of study was prepared from a strictly educational point of view, for 
it was generally agreed that nothing in the laws of this State authorized the 
diversion of the common-school funds to the purposes of industrial education or 
the teaching of special trades. A few of the fundamental principles involved, as 



17 

given in a circular of information Ity the United States linreau of Education in 
1881, maj' shed some light on this aspect of the subject: 

''(1) The State has a right to teach any branch of knowledge that will iiromote 
the public welfare. 

"(2) The right of the State to teach all knowledge does not necessarily make 
such instruction its duty. The right to teach is one thing and the obligation to 
teach is another. The duty of the State in education is limited by its ability. 

"(3) The duty of the State to teach is also conditioned by necessity. 

"(4) The primary and imperative duty of the public school is to provide train- 
ing and to teach knowledge of general application and utility. , The primary func- 
tion of the public school is of the highest practical importance and value. Its 
comprehensive aim is to prepare the child to discharge the duties and meet the 
obligations of coming manhood, including his relations to the family, society, and 
the State, relations involving the highest and most important activities of civilized 
life. 

"(5) The public school, as above defined, exhausts neither the right nor the duty 
of the State in education. The State may establish higher institutions, and it may 
organize and encourage special schools to promote important industries or to meet the 
wants of classes. It has the right to supplement the public school by special schools 
for technical training. * * * The elements of technical knowledge which are of 
general application and utility may clearly be taught in the public schools. * * * 
Such instruction is not only the basis of technical training, but it is of great value 
to all youth, whatever may be their future occupations and positions in lile. It is 
useful as a preparation for all pursuits. » * * Time for this instruction may be 
gained by reducing the time hitherto devoted to several other branches of study. 
This has been done in many schools without loss, and the adoption of truer ideas 
and better methods of teaching would make it possible and feasible to all. * * * 
Such instruction may properly be called general, in distinction from that which 
relates to a particular trade or pursuit, which is special." 

The objection to special technical training does not apply to the training of pupils 
in the use of hand tools and simple mechanical processes, when such training is 
made a means of general education, the training of the eye, the hand, the mind, for 
educational purposes. > Such training is not the teaching of trades or handicraft, but 
is general technical training, the same as mechanical drawing, and as such has a 
place in the public-school course. 

The extent of such training will depend upon its value as an element of general 
education. The public school can not easily undertake the work of special techni- 
cal training. * * * The public school has done its part in preparing yoxith for 
special pursuits when it has given them an efficient general preparation for all pur- 
suits, and all industrial experience shows that the more fundamental and thorough 
this general preparation, the more fruitful will be the special training. 

In the report to the board of education for 1891, under the heading 
of "Course of study," it is stated that — 

No modification has been made during the year, and there are 37 departments pur- 
suing the manual-training course of study, 122 classes in sewing, 22 in cooking, and 
55 in workshop. The course pursued in this class of schools seems to be meeting 
general approval and the instruction is efficient. 

In December of the same year a special report was made on this 
subject, and some improvements were made as suggested by experience. 
The comment on cooking is as follows : 

This subject is taught to the girls in the second and third grammar grades. The 
teaching is done by four special teachers. The progress made has been commend- 
able, the instruction having been given in thorough accord with the specifications 
9900— No. 50 2 



18 

of the course of study. The real object of the study has been kept carefully in view, 
and the understanding of food values, chemical changes, hygienic influences, and 
physiological truths has not been sacrificed for the simple ability to make palatable 
dishes. The choice of raw materials, their composition, their nutritive quality, and 
their relative values have been carefully studied, and the change of food into blood 
is understood from an economical as well as a scientific point of view. 

A note is also made on the influence of the manual-training course as 
follows : 

The question of the amount and character of the influence which the so-called 
manual-training subjects exert upon the ordinary branches of school education is 
one that is not to be settled by mere offhand statement. The correct answer can 
not be given by the enthusiast, who finds in manual training a panacea for all the 
ills of school life, and who sees in the shop work or in the cooking an ennobling influ- 
ence that transforms the character of the wayward i^upil ; nor can it be given by the 
half-hearted, doubting teacher who fails to give to the pupils a fair opportunity to 
obtain the benefit to be obtained from the really excellent methods which are charac- 
teristic of the manual-training course. 

The true condition of afi'airs can be determined only by carefully and dispassion- 
ately viewing the whole field, and by obtaining, as nearly as may be done, the con- 
sensus of judgment of those who have been responsible for the application and 
enforcement of the provisions of the manual-training course of study. Probably 
the true condition of the situation is this: The manual-training subjects lead the 
pupil to see and to understand more things, and consequently give them more sub- 
jects to talk about uuderstandingly and compel them to talk more. 

The report of 1892 shows 594 pupils receiving instruction in cooking. 

In the same year's report of free lectures given to working men and 
women, many of whom were the parents of the children attending 
school, six were said to be on physiology and hygiene and one on the 
digestion of food. Another interesting note during this year is that it 
appears to be a fact that the teachers and the pupils who do the best 
work in manual-training departments are those who do the best work 
in their regular studies. It is stated that the instruction continues to 
be of a very satisfactory character, and that the introduction of the 
manual-training course of study into other schools, as opportunity may 
offer, would seem to be advisable. It is also urged that the kitchens 
should be provided with food cabinets and with simple chemical appli- 
ances for demonstrating the changes that take place in converting raw 
material into food and food into blood. 

The report of 1893 states that the number of manual-training schools 
has not been increased, but that this has hax)pened through want of 
necessary funds and not through lack of desire to introduce the manual- 
training course into other schools. 

The working of the full manual-training course of study in our schools has been 
very successful. The schools of this class have been visited by many educational 
experts and by residents of their respective localities. The commendations of these 
visitors have been, as a rule, of the strongest possible character, and they indorse 
most fully the New York theory that manual training is not something for the 
kindergarten and high school simply, but is an educational principle that should 
permeate the whole course of instruction. 



19 

It" may be noted in passing that within this year the committee of 
fifteen of the I^Tational Educational Association reports as fallow's : 

Sewing aud cooking have the same (but stronger) claims for jilace in schools as 
the use of tools of wood, and iron. One-half day in each week for one-half a year 
each in the seventh and eighth grades will suflice for manual training, the sewing 
and the cooking being studied by the girls and the wood aud iron work by the boys. 

During 1894 the manual-training course of study was followed with- 
out any modification, aud there was but slight change in the number 
and organization of the schools imrsuing this course of study. 

It was then believed that when all the promotions to the grammar 
department of the manual-training school would come from i^rimaries 
in which sewing is thoroughly taught it would be possible to complete 
the course in sewing by the end of the fifth grade, thus giving more 
time, if desired, to the subject of cooking and making it feasible to 
introduce a short course in the cliemistry of foods. 

In the year 1895 this course of study was established in two more 
schools. A careful supervision of the instruction in cooking showed 
thorough and appreciative work. In a few cases the results were 
attained under difficulties. It should be borne in mind that the appli- 
ances necessary for this work had then been in use for some time, aud 
in several schools they needed to be renewed. The course then 
embraced instruction in the chemistry of foods, and this received its 
proper share of attention. The practical work was so arranged that 
each pupil shared in the actual process of cooking the materials selected, 
under the direct and close supervision of the teacher. Pupils often 
brought articles cooked by them at home, and the results of the 
instructions were thus readily seen by the teachers. 

In this report there was a note made of the fact that there should be 
in each school where this subject is taught a collection of charts show- 
ing the various cuts of meats and samples of the various kinds of food 
products. 

During the year 1896 the manual- training course was established in 
two more schools and a supervisor of manual-training subjects was 
appointed for the first time, the office of supervisor having been created 
by the board of education under authority vested in it by the new 
school law. 

The teaching of cooking, like other specialties, was provided with a 
supervisor, the appointment being made in the latter part of October. 
In the short time intervening between the date of appointment and 
the close of the yeai- the supervisor held a conference with the special 
teachers of cooking at which suggestions were made as to the methods 
of instruction, and these suggestions were supplemented by special 
advice given at the time of the visits to the several schools. More 
attention to the chemistry of foods was urged and the introduction of 
the systematic use of the microscope was recommended. 



20 

The plan of work arranged by the supervisor of cookery appointed 
at this time for the New York schools was as follows : 

I. Subjects. — Chemistry, physics, botany, physiology, and hygiene, and their 

application. 
II. Work. — Work should he made uniform throughout schools as far as possible. 

(1) Unifonniiy of science and principles. — Although science and principles 
should be the same throughout, dishes may A^ary according to needs of 
special schools. 
i2) Uniformity of lime. — A time-table should be submitted. 

III. Meetings. — Meetings of teachers should be called at regular intervals. 

(1) Books. — Suggestions as to books, apparatus, chemicals, 1o be used. 

(2) Methods. — Methods of presenting different subjects and manner of serv- 

ing dishes should be discussed. 

(3) Reading of papers. — Papers should be read by teachers on special subjects. 

(4) Assistance to teachers. — To guide teachers in fitting themselves to teach the 

different subjects. 

IV. Acquaintance with work. 

(1) Classes. — To visit classes regularly. Siiggestions made and help given to 

teachers. Examine reports of work done by pupils at home and in 
school. 

(2) Schools. — Different schools visited with view of introducing subjects. 

(3) Institutions. — Visit Wesleyan University and other institutions for benefit 

of system. 
V. Examinations. — To assist in examination of applicants when requested. 
VI. Reports. — To supply reports as committee may desire. 

The order of the cooking lessons in the third and second grades at 
this date, with suggestions for practical work, is of interest. 

Order of Cooking Lessons. 
third grade. 



Elements in the body and in food. How 
food repairs the body ; why necessary 
to be repaired. Combustion; oxygen 
necessary to support combnstion both 
in the body and in the stove. The 
making and care of a fire. 

Boiling — the conversion of water into 
steam ; temperatures of boiling, sim- 
mering, and scalding water. 

Boiled eggs; coagulation of albumen 
shown by use of test tube. The com- 
position of egg; how to know a fresh 
one; how to keep, etc. Poached eggs. 

Boiled potatoes; baked potatoes; com- 
position of potatoes ; classes of vegeta- 
bles; potato a tuber ; manner of plant- 
ing; how to keep, etc. Show how 
starch is extracted. 

Boiled rice; steamed rice; the different 
cereals; composition of rice; its 
growth; preparation for market, etc. 
Oatmeal, composition of grain ; nutri- 
tive value compared with that of rice. 



Baked apples; composition of apple, etc. 

Bread: Composition of Hour; wheat an 
important cereal; contains more glu- 
ten. Show how gluten is extracted 
from flour. 

Omelet. 

Milk toast. 

Muffins. 

Coffee : The coffee berry ; the seeds roasted 
to develop flavor; caffeine ; tannic aoid; 
the effect of each. 

Meat : Difierent kinds ; the eftect of cold 
and hot water upon meat; difierent 
ways of cooking meat in water; com- 
position of beef. 

Beef tea: Illustrating the principle of 
soup making. 

Broiling. 

Biscuit. 

Tea : The tea plant ; how prepared ; theine 
similar to caftdne; tannic acid, etc. 

Fried potatoes: Principles of frying; 
temperature of fat, etc. 



21 



THIRD GRADE — continued. 



Corn bread: Composition of corn meal; 
nutritive value compared with other 
cereals; difierent preparation from 
corn. - 

Scrambled eggs. 

Soup stock: Soups with stock and soups 
without stock. 

Tomato soup without stock: Should not 
be cooked in tin vessels, as tomatoes con- 
tain nnich acid. 

SECOND 

Creamed eggs. 

Baked custard. 

Roast beef: Different cuts roast, etc. 

Browned potatoes. 

Cocoa : The cocoa bean obtained from the 
cocoa tree; chocolate and cocoa pre- 
pared from same bean. 

Breaded chops. 

Ai^ple cake with lemon sauce. 

Fish balls ; why salting preserves food, 
etc. 

Gingerbread. 

Chicken : How to tell a young one ; how 
to prepare for roasting; trussing, etc. ; 
how to carve. 

Molasses gems. 

Cooking fo 

Mutton broth with rice. 
Clam broth. , 

Chicken broth. 
Beef tea. 
Farina gruel. 
Irish-moss lemonade. 
Flaxseed lemonade. 



Baked macaroni with cheese: What mac- 
aroni is and how prepared ; cheese from 
the caseine of milk. 

Beef stew: Principles of stewing; por- 
tions of meat which may be used. 

Plain rice pudding. 

Steamed brown bread: Principles of 
steanduji-. 



Plain cake. 

Boiled custard. 

Pea soup : Composition of peas; value as 

a food. 
Cookies. 
Oyster soup. 
Cottage pudding. 
Boiled fish: Egg sauce — different kinds; 

how to tell fresh fish, etc. 
Creamed potatoes. 
Bread pudding. 
Griddle cakes. 
Meat balls. 
Pastry. 
Lobster: How to tell a good one, etc. 

R Invalids. 

Lemon jelly. 
Jelly water. 
Toast water. 

Chemistry lessons according to manual. 
Composition on the chemistry of foods 
once every four weeks. 



SDGfiESTioxs FOR Practical Work. 



The making and care of a fire. 

Hard-boiled eggs. 

Soft-cooked eggs. 

Poached eggs on toast. 

Beef tea. 

Boiled beef. 

Boiled potatoes. 

Baked potatoes. 

Extraction of starch from potatoes. 

The making of a stew. 

Steamed rice. 

Boiled rice. 

Soup stock. 

Broiled steak. 

Broiled chops. 

A lesson on waste meats. 

A lesson on frying. 



Boiling oatmeal and other cereals. 

Wheat mufiSns. 

Baked apples. 

Making of coffee.- . 

Plain omelet. 

Tea. 

Tomato soup with rice. 

Tea biscuit. " 

Lessons on bread nuiking, extraction of 

gluten from Hour. 
Cocoa. 

Pea soup with croutons. 
Baked custard. 
Corn mufiSns. 
Plain rice pudding. 
Cottage pudding with lemon sauce. 
Milk toast. 



22 



Suggestions for Practical Work— Continued. 



Codfish balls. 

Gingerbread. 

Mashed potatoes. 

Popovers. 

Steamed brown bread. 

Oyster soup. 

Molasses gems. 

Creamed potatoes. 

Baked fish. 

Scrambled eggs. 

Potato soup. 

Chocolate. 

Creamed codfish. 

Griddle cakes. 

Preparing a chicken to roast. 

Mock bisque soup . 

Plain cake, with suggestions for fancy 

cake. 
Clam soup. 



Junket made with pepsin. 

Boiled fish with egg sauce. 

Macaroni with tomato sauce. 

Whole -wheat gems. 

Potato salad. 

Corn-starch blancmange. 

Queen of pudding made with bread 

crumbs. 
Omelet souffle. 
Pastry, with suggestions for different 

kinds of pies. 
Dutch apple cake with sauce, 
Graham pudding. 
Jumbles. 
Sponge cake. 
Lemon jelly. 
Tapioca cream. 
Snow pudding with boiled custard. 



Special Foods for Invalids. 

Beef tea made in a bottle. Irish-moss lemonade. 

Mutton broth with boiled rice. ' Irish-moss blancmange. 

Crust cofiee. Flour souffle. 

Indian-meal gruel Stewed oysters. 

Barley gruel. Brown-bread brewis. 
Oatmeal gruel. 

The following are samples of the reports made to the city superin- 
tendent of schools regarding the courses in cooking in each school dur- 
ing this year : 

Female Department, Grammar School No. — , 

New York, Octoler 5, 1896. 

Seating capacity of kitchen 35 

Number of hours and minutes the teacher of cooking is employed each week in 
this department 2 hours 30 minutes 



Number of classes 

Number in eacb class ^ 

Number receiviug lesson in practice together a 

Number receiving lesson in chemistry together 

Length of each lesson in practice hours. . 

Length of each lesson in chemistry do 

Ninuber of lessons in practice which eacb child receives per month a... 

Number of lessons in chemistry which eacb child receives per month 

Total time given to instruction in this grade per month hours.. 




Third 
grade. 

1 
29 

5 
29 

li 

1 

2 

2 

5 



a Every child in eacb class is present at a practical lesson twice a month, but as only five can work 
at a time, each child has actual practice but two or three times in a term. 

, Principal. 



23 

Female Department, Grammar School No. — , 

A^eiv York, October —, 1S96. 
Seating capacity of kitchen 45 

Number of hours the teacher of cooking is employed each week iu this department' 3 



Second 
grade. 



Third 
grade. 



Number of classes 

Number in each class 

Number receiving le.sson in practice together 

Number receiving lesson in chemistry together 

Length of each lesson in practice a hours.. 

Length of each lesson in chemistry a do 

Number of lessons in practice which each child receives per month 

Number of lessons in chemistry which each child receives per month 

Total time given to instruction in this grade per morith ^ hours.. 



1 

37 

37 

37 

1 

1 

i 

4 or 5 

12 or 15 



1 

46 

46 

46 

1 

\ 
1 
4 or 5 
12 or 15 



a The lessons in practice and those in chemistry are frequently combined. While some articles are 
being cooked, a lesson in chemistry can be given. 

, Principal. 

The course in cookery was given during the school year 1897-98 in 
22 schools to 127 classes, numbering- 4,130 pupils. The number of 
pupils in each class ranged from 18 to 45. The supervisor states 
that — 

Three other schools will be ready in September, and I trust the above number will 
be more than doubled during the coming winter. The schools in which you see 
small classes are mostly schools for boys and girls, the boys taking the shopwork 
and the girls cooking. A few of the principals of girls' schools have divided their 
classes. This ought to be done iu every school, and we are hoping it soon will be, 
for it is impossible to have satisfactory results with large classes. 

Before January 1, 1897, three hours per week were allowed with 
divided classes, so that the maximum number of pupils should never 
be more than 30. This division practically gave six hours to some 
classes though only three hours to each pupil. Afterwards the time 
was reduced to two hours as the result of a prolonged investigation 
into such work in the United States and abroad. 

In January, 1898, the board of superintendents reviewed the matter, 
and unanimously reported in favor of reducing the time to one and a 
half hours per week. On January 18, 1899, the school board adopted 
the recommendation of the board of superintendents. 

QUALIFICATIONS OP TEACHERS. 

The board of superintendents of Manhattan and the Bronx estab- 
lished the following qualifications for supervisors and teachers of cook- 
ery in the schools under their control : 

SPECIAL TEACHERS OF COOKING. 



(a) Must give evidence of good general education and culture, and must have 
graduated from a course of professional training of at least one year, or must have 
had two years' experience in teaching the subject. 



' Miss ■ 



• remains In school from 9 a. m. to 3 p. m; All time not spent in instruc- 



tion is spent in preparation. 



24 

(h) Must be examined in (1) chemistry and plij'siology of foods; (2) cooking; 
(3) hygiene; and (4) methods of teaching the subject, especially as shown by a 
practical demonstration lesson in the kitchen. 

SUrKRVISORS. 

(a) A candidate for election as supervisor of a special branch must be (1) a gradu- 
ate of a high school or of an institution of equal or higher scholastic rank ; (2) a 
graduate from a course of professional training of at least one year in the special 
branch that he is to supervise or teach ; and (3) a teacher of that special branch 
with at least three years' successful experience. 

(&) Candidates for this position must give evidence of marked ability in the 
branches which they are to supervise. 

Since the consolidation in February, 1898, of the various communi- 
ties lying in and about l^ew York Harbor into the city of New York a 
new regime has been called for, as a result of a chapter on education in 
the charter of the city. There is now one central board and one city 
superintendent over all boroughs, under whose direction a board of 
examiners provides an eligible list for all appointments, and who does 
all licensing. This central board has already issued one circular to 
candidates notifying them of an examination to take place on a certain 
date at a certain place. 

The cooking schools are now to be found only in the elementary and 
evening schools and in the normal college, although they are also 
included in the authorized course for high schools and training schools. 

The boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx are educationally united 
under one borough superintendent^ John Jasper, who alone thus far 
has cooking schools in his manual-training course. 

Under his direction the course in cookery for the sixth and >seventh 
school years has been revised and is now as follows: 

OUTLINE OF THE COURSE OF COOKERY IN THE NEW YORK CITY 

SCHOOLS. 

What cooking means. — Cooking means the knowledge of Medea and Circe, and of 
Calypso, and of Helen, and of Rebekah, and of the Queen of Sheba. It means the 
knowledge of all herbs, and fruit, and balms, and spices, and of all that is healing 
and sweet in fields, and groves and savory in meats; it means carefulness and invent- 
iveness, and watchfulness, and willinguess, and readiness of appliance; it means 
the economy of your great-grandmothers and the science of modern chemists; it 
means much tasting and no wasting ; it means English thoroughness, and French art, 
and Arabian hosjiitality ; it means, in fine, that you are to be perfectly and always, 
ladies (loaf givers) ; and, as you are to see imperatively that everybody has some- 
thing pretty to put on, so you ai'e to see, yet more; imperatively, that everyl)ody has 
something nice to eat. — Ruskin. 

Air, Fire, Water. 

a. Their relation to life. 

h. Their relation to cookery. 

Air. — a. Why important to life. 

1. Oxygen, with experiment. 

2. Necessity of fresh air. 
4. Relation to combustion. 



Fire. 



-a. Combustion. 
1. Kinds of .. 



25 



/Slow — Examples of. 
"\Rapid — Examples of. 



& Principal uses of fire in the house. 

1. For warmth. 

2. For cooking purposes. 

c. Fuels. 

1. History. 

2. Varieties. 



Vegetable. 



Woods 



a. Solid 



Mineral 



Fuels not in 
general use. 



Lignite. 

Bituminous. 

Anthracite. 



/Hard. 

/Soft. 
Peat. 

Pressed hay. 
Peach pits. 
Corncobs. 
Corn. 
Camels' dung. 



Manufactured \ Poke 

{Petroleum. 
Alcohol. |-T(j.,+,,p„i 
^'^^®®- -- [Manufactured. 

Note. — The attention of the pupils should constantly bo called to the importance 
of economy in the use of fuels and of having flue connections for all gas stoves. 

Nole. — Could gas be universally used for fuel one of the greatest drudgeries of 
housekeeping — making and taking care of coal fires — would be removed. Every 
school kitchen is furnished with a gas stove, but great care and watchfulness on the 
part of teachers is necessary in order that the little cooks may form the habit of using 
it economically. 

Water. — a. Its source. 

1. Evaporation and condensation. 

2. Soft water— rain. 

3. Hard water — having taken mineral matter from the earth. 

Difference between /Temporary hard water. 

[Permanent hard water. 
Tests. 

4. Impurities in water. 

Note. — Caution in use of water that stands in pipes. 



CHEMISTRY OF CLEANING. 



1. Personal cleanliness. 
fSkin. 
Hair. 
Teeth. 
(Nails. 
h. Care of clothing. 



a. Care of \ 



Note. — Their importance to the health of the individual and of the public, and 
their power as a preventive to the spread of contagious diseases should be dwelt 
upon. 

2. Household cleanliness. 

r Ventilation. 

a. Valuable aids to Sunlight. 

[Disinfectants. 

Beds and bedding. 
Floors, walls, ceilings. 
Closets, traps. 

b. Care of I Pantries. 

Ice boxes. 
Dish towels. 
Dish cloths, etc. 

Note. — The study of the composition of soap, ammonia, soda, potash, etc., utensils, 
stoves, and polishing reagents, to be taken up under above heading. 



26 

The Human Body. 
a. Elements composing it and where obtained. 
FoOD.-a. Its functions {^^rst'jand repair. 

i Water. 
jProtein. 
^"*'"'«^*^---- Carbohydrates. 
(Mineral matter. 

Potatoes. 
Theory. — History. 

Botany — Note difference between sweet and white potatoes. 
Composition. 

[Water. 

Experiment showing < Starch — test. 

[Cellulose. 

Use of microscope. 

(Plant. 

Drawing Tuber. 

[starch grains. 

DIGESTION OF STAllCH. 

a. Salivary glands. 

&. Action of saliva on starch. 

c. Test saliva with litmus. 

d. Pancreatic juice. 

e. Food value of starch. 

Practice. — Boiled. ] 

Baked. I White. 
Mashed. jSweet. 
Creamed. ] 

Note. — Compare nutritive value of same. 

Cereals. 
Theory. — History. 

Botany — grow various grains. 
Composition. 
Note similarity and difference in grains. 
Show cross sections under microscope. 
Importance in the vegetable kingdom. 
Prunes, figs, dates, bananas and other fruits, valuable adjuncts. 

Practice. — Mush from various grains served hot and molded. 

Note difference in quantity of water and time required in the cooking 
of whole grains and those in other forms. 

Note. — Emphasize importance of having rice grains whole and dry. 

Breads. 

Theory. — 1. History of breads of various nations. 

2. Materials used. 

3. Made light bj- use of — 

1, Air. 

[From acid and .alkali. 

2. Gas — CO2 I From yeast fermentation. 

[Aerated. 

4. Baking powders. 

a. Their composition. 

T). Adulterations. 

c. Materials to illustrate. 

iArgol. 
Crystal. 
Powder. 
2. Bicarbonate of soda. 

Note. — Show other acids and alkalies. Tests. Experiments. 



27 

Quick Breads. 

PrnoUot^ — Rflttprs /Thin— Example : Pop-overs, made light by air. 

nactice. -^aT;ter8....|rpj^.^,^_j,^^j^pjg. jyiugj^g^ ^ade light by baking powder. 

Note. — Make muffins of various kinds. Quick oven necessary for all quick breads. 
Doughs — tea biscuit. 

Short cake — using fruits in season. 

Yeast. 

Theory. — Botanical classification. 

Manner of growth with experiments. 

Use of microscope. 

Drawings. 

Fermentation. ...{L^«J;«; 

Flour. 

Varieties of wheat and otlier grains used. 

Milling processes. 

Comparative value of white and whole wheat. 

Separation of starch and gluten. 

Use of microscope. 

Bread. 

Processes in bread baking. 

Temperature of oven in relation to size of loaf. 

r Comparison between crust and crumb — 
T^. i-i -1 %. J Fresh and stale. 

Digestibility.... <^ Hot and cold. 

[ Toasted (properly). 

Practice. — Whole wheat and white bread. 
Bread sticks. 

1 Parker House 
Swedish. 
French. 

Other Wheat Preparations. 

Theory. — Macaroni, spaghetti, etc. 
Manufacture of. 
Where most used. 
Food value of. 

Practice. — Macaroni with cheese. 

Macaroni with cream sauce. 
Spaghetti with tomatoes. 

Protein. 
Theory. — 1. Where found. 

2. Its function in the body. 

3. Varieties — chemical nature. 

4. Digestion of: 

a. Under what conditions most easily digested. 
5. Mastication. 

c. Gastric and intestinal digestion. 

d. Experiments. 

Eggs. 

Theory. — 1. Albumen. 

Note. — Above experiments under protein will cover most of the work 
with albumen. 

2. Eggs of various birds: Those most commonly used as food. 

3. Composition — Nutritive value. 

4. Tests for fresh and stale. 

5. Varying market value according to season. 



28 

Practice. — Soft cooked. 
Hard cooked. 
Poached. 

Omelettes.... -I c^^^^^-'-u 4. 
[ tepanisn, etc. 

Tea. 
Theory. — History. 
Kinds. 

f Stimulating. 

Pronerties \ Astringent. 

^ ] Effect on digestion, 

l^ Test for tannin. 

Manners of preparing. Why? 

Coffee. 
History. 
Kinds. 

Pronerties /Compare similarity and differences in tt-a and coffee. 
^ ' ■■■ (^Manners of J) reparing. Whyf 

Cocoa and Chocolate. 
Growth and preparation. 
Nntritive value and digestibility. 
Manner of cooking. 

Note. — Practice work on beverages to be taken with bread lessons. 

Milk. 

Theory. — 1. History: Milk of different animals. 

2. Composition, with experiments. 

a. Cream — Show globules under microscope. 
h. Amount of water. 
0. Casein. 

3. Nutritive value. 

[ Pasteurization. 

4. Care of < Sterilization. 

[ Cleanliness of utensils. 

Butter. 
Theory. — 1. Dairy methods. 

2. Experiment. 

Make small amount. 

3. Flavors due to bacilli. 

4. Substitutes. 

5. Nutritive value. 

6. Digestibility compared with other fiits. 

ClIEESK. 

Theory. — 1. Manufacture. 

2. Digestibility — Food value. 

3. Mold shown with microscope. 

Practice. — Eamakins. 

Cheesed crackers. 

Vegetable Classification. 

TAeor*/.— Seeds /Peas. 

[Beans. 

«-'« {Sps. 

Bulbs Onions. 

Tubers /Potatoes. 

i^Jerasaleni artichokes. 

Shoots Asparagus. 



29 

rj,, T fCabbaae. 

TAeon/.-Leaves .... JLettuce. 

Flowers Cauliflower. 

^T ., (Cucumber. 

*^"^^ \Tomato. 

Fungi Mushroom. 

Vegetable Protein. 
Theory . — 1. Where found. 

2. Composition. 

3. Large proportion of vegetable casein and corresponding difficulty of 

digestion if insufficiently cooked. 
How to overcome this. 

Soups. [Peas. 
Practice. — Purees . . J Beans. 
[Lentils. 
Croutons. 
Baked beans. 

Animal Protein. 

Theory. — 1. Historical references. 

2. Diflferent cuts — their uses — comparative prices. 
Meats — 3. Food value and digestibility of different cuts, and effect of manner of 
cooking on same. 

4. Methods of preserving. 

5. Diseased meats — dangers resulting from their use. 

Use of microscope showing fiber, bone, tissue, fat. 
(>. Care of before and after cooking. 
7. Experiments with hot and cold water. 

UROILING AND PAN-IJROILING. 

Practice. — 1. Round steak — garnishing. 

2. Chops. ...If^^^^^- . ,. 

^ [Loin — garnishing. 

3. Meat cakes — garnishing. 

ROASTING. 

Theory. — 1. Economy of flauk or chuck. 

2. Temperature of oven depending upon kind and size of cut 

3. Necessity of saving drippings. 

Practice. — Eolled flank, or chuck roast. 

RROILING — SIMMERING. 

Theory. — 1. Difference in the broiling of fresh and salt meats. 

2. Why flavor is not so good as in roasted meats. 

3. Utilize water in which meat is cooked. 

J'ractice. — Knuckle end of shoulder, or leg of iuutton. 

STEWING. 

Theory. — 1. Its relation to boiled meats. 

2. The addition of vegetables. 

o riT, * I Round of beef. 

3. Cheap cuts....|^^^3^^f^^^^^^^_ 

4. Slow cooking. 

Practice. — Brown stew with dumplings. 

KRAISING. 

Theory. — 1. Its relation to roasting. 

2. Use of vegetables. 

3. Cheap cuts and slow cooking. 

Practice. — Liver. Under round of beef, larded, etc. 



Theory. — 1. Materials used 
2. Kinds ....{W J 
rractice. — Fowl, veal, etc. 



30 

FRICASSEEING. 



Fowl. 



Tlieorij. — a. How to distinguish between young and old. 
6. Preparation for market, 
c. Purchasing of. 
(1. Game — 

What it is. 

Cost, etc. 

Diaestibility of. 
e. Anatomy of. 

I Drawing, 
irussiug. 
stuffing. 



Theort/. — Different fats used. 

Temperature necessary. 

Difference between frying and sautoing. 

Use of bread crumbs and egg. 

Practice. — Breaded chops, tomato sauce. 
Rice croquettes. 

Made-ovkr Dishes. 

Theori/. — a. Economy of. 

b. Care necessary. 

Recooking hardens albumen, etc. 

c. Materials used. 

Practice. — Hashes. 

Croquettes. 

Minced meat on toast. 

Rice and meat, etc. 

Saut^ing. 

Theory.— a. Difference between sautcing and frying. 
1). Food commonly sauted. 

Practice. — Liver and bacon — poor summer food. 

Note difference in digestibility and nutritive value of internal organs 
compared with other parts. 

Fish. 

Theory. — a. Kinds — Composition. 

b. Native to what waters. 

c. Light and dark, why difference in digestibility. 

d. Fresh, salted, and smoked — Digestibility compared. 

e. Nutritive value compared with meats. 
/. How to tell fresh fish. 

Practice. — Boiled. 
Baked. 
Broiled, saut(^d, fried. 

Garnishing. 

Sauces. 



31 

Soups with Stock. 

Tlieory. — a. Stock — Composition. 

Little nutritive value. 
h. Manner of preparing, and wliy. 
c. Materials nsed. 

White of egg for clearing, and why used. 

Practice. — Clear soups. 

Macaroni, noodles. 
Vegetable, tomato. 
Julienne. 

Note. — Use of scraps of beef, bones, etc. 

Use of water in which meat and vegetables have been cooked. 

Soups without stock. 

CREAM SOUPS. 

Practice. — Potato. 

Celery. 

Mock bisque, etc. 

Note. — Nutritive value. 

Beef Tea, Juice, Extract. 

Theory. — a. When used; why used. 
h. Those only stimulating. 

Those botli stimulating and nourishing. 

c. Methods of preparing. 

d. Cuts used. 

Practice. — a. Beef tea. 
h. Beef .juice, 
c. Combining beef juice with other foods. 

Vegetables. 

Theory. — a. Refer to classification. 

6. Use of vegetables in season. 

c. Importance of having them iu fresh condition. 

d. Composition (general) and food value. 

e. Diti'ereint methods of cooking. 

Note. — A suitable vegetable to be cooked at each lesson on meats and fish. The 
history, composition, and adulteration of the condiments in common use will also 
form a part of the theory lessons on these subjects. 

Salads. 
Theory. — a. Material used. 

1. Freshness and crispness of lettuce, etc. 

2. Left-overs of meat, fish, and vegetables. 
6. Value of oil used. 

Dressings. 
Practice. — French. 

Mayonnaise. 
Boiled. 
Lettuce, tomato, cabbage, salmon, etc. 

Desserts. 

Theory. — a. Their relation to lood and diet. 
h. Use and abuse. 

c. Use of fruits alone and in combination with other materials. 

d. Eeason for the indigestibility of pastry. 

e. Use, composition, and adulteration of flavorings for desserts. 

Custards. 
Practice. — Soft, caramel, with sauce. 
Steamed, baked. 
Use of chocolate in. 



32 

Souffles. 
Practice. — Various kinds. 

Use of dates, ligs, and other fruits. 



Gelatine Jellies. 

Batteii Puddings. 
Cakes. 



Beaten jellies. 
Charlottes. 

Fruit u.sed as variety. 

Sponge. 

Cup. 

Molasses cake — cookies. 

Layer cake. 

Sauces. 

Suitable to combine with above desserts. 

Note. — Study of the composition of different flavorings used in desserts, also adul- 
terations of same, will form part of the theory lessons on this subject. 

Canning and Presekving. 

germ theory. 

Theory. --a. Foreign matter in the air. 
h. Dust and what it contains. 

c. Molds, yeast, and bacteria. 

d. Show molds on bread, lemon, cheese, jellies, etc. Fermented canned 

fruits. 

e. Souring of milk, soups, uncooked and cooked food, etc. 
/. Use of microscope. 

g. Food value of canned foods compared with other foods. 

Practice. — Canning of fraits in season. Jellies, etc. 

Comparison of modern methods of jireservlng with those of olden times. 

Freezing. 
Theory. — a. Latent heat. 

Principle of freezing. 
Use of salt. 

b. Packing. 

Practice. — Ice cream. 
Sherbets. 
Frozen fruits. 
Molded frozen desserts. 

Physiology. 

alimextary canal. 

Theory, — a. Drawing, showing salivary glands, alimentary canal. 
i. Saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice. 

c. Experiments with saliva, pepsin, and pancreatin. 

Invalid Cookery. 

Iheory. — a. Necessity of a knowledge of. 

h- How it differs from usual cooking. 

c. Great carefulness and accuracy. 

d. Daintiness — neatness. 

e. Care in serving hot foods hot. Cold foods cold. 

Practice. — Gruels — Beverages. 
Beef juice, essence. 
Egg preparations. 

Milk preparations and combinations. 
Oysters. 
Jellies. 
Ice cream. 



33 



Infant Feeding. 



Theory and Practice. — Milk — care of, kinds. 
Sterilization. 
Pasteurization. 
Care of bottles. 



Cooking and Serving of a Simple Dinner. 

T ^Ac f Nutritious. 
^"«^^- --I Economical. 

table setting — decoration. 

Daintiness. 
Spotless linen. 



Quietness. 
Carefulness, etc. 

COURSES. 

Soup. 

Meat and vegetables. 

Salad. 

Dessert. 

conclusion. 

Instruction will bo given by the supervisor, at the regular conferences, on the 
division of the work of the dift'ereut grades. The progross books kept by the 
teachers, showing the work covered each month, will be discussed and compared at 
these meetings. 

In order to secure uniformity and mutual progress, each teacher will be required 
in turn to give a lecture on a subject chosen from the manual. 

Free use of blackboard during each lessou is advised ; also composition and dicta- 
tion lessons for each grade. 

Pupils should become familiar with quotations on cooking from the best authors, 
and with the names of the men in Europe and America who have made a study of 
this science. The pamphlets furnished by the Department of Agriculture in Wash- 
ington will inform them of the investigations of food and nutrition made by the 
Government. Professor Atwater's Food and Diet is among these pamphlets, and 
should form one of the reading books in each class. Chas. D. Wood's Cooking of 
Meats is another such pamphlet. 

Many valuable books of reference are to be found in the school libraries. Recom- 
mendations for others will be made from time to time in order to keep up with the 
progress in the investigations and research in this line of work. 

Teachers will visit with the supervisor, from time to time, the manufactories of 
food products, such as flour mills, cream of tartar works, chocolate manufactories, 
canning establishments, and tea, coffee, and spice importing houses. 

The following is a partial list of the reference books recommended 
by the supervisor for use in connection with the course in cookery : 

Foods, by Edward Smith. 

Chemistry of Cookery, by W. Matthieu Williams. 

History of a Mouthful of Bread, by J. Mac6, translated by Mrs. A. Gatty. 
Remsen's Chemistry. 

Laboratory Manual of General Chemistry, by Williams. 
Vegetable World and Animal World, by Figuier. 

Elements of Strnctural and Systematic Botany, by Campbell. (Boston, 1890.) 
Principles of Hygiene, E. M. Hunt. 
9900— No. 56 3 



34 

Spirit of Cookery (Thudichum). 
Century Cook Book (Mary Ronald). 
European and American Cuisine (Lemcke). 
Thb Murrey Collection of Cook Books. 
Francatelli's Modern Cook Book. 
Marian Harland's Books. 

The extracts given below from a letter by Mrs. Williams to tlie author 
of this report may serve to show with what earnestness and enthusiasm 
the work in cookery is being pursued in the New York schools : 

Under the direction of the supervisor of cooking, teachers are expected to adapt 
from this general course such special courses for instruction as are suited to the 
peculiar needs of the environment from which their classes are drawn, thus com- 
bining utility with the pedagogical training given. 

Cookery in the schools was for several years experimental, and was established in 
but few of our schools, but I am sure it was the hope of its advocates in the board 
of education that it would fill a long-felt want in the education of the girls iu this 
great city. That this hope Avas shared by some of the principals of the pioneer 
schools whom it was ray privilege to call friends I am equally sure. 

It was not alone that the number of schools into which cookery has been introduced 
is greater than the entire numlier during the past ten years, but that it has also been 
extended to the first grades and college classes, and that we are so much better 
equipped to teach the work scientifically. * * * 

Jnst as surely as the microscope and scientific research have accomplished wonders 
for the hospital, so will they accomplish wonders for the home. In order that the 
educational side of cookery might be better taught iu our schools, in 1897 I asked 
for an appropriation of $214 for the purchase of microscopes. This amount was 
to supply each teacher with one, so that she could take it with her to different 
schools under her charge, and also to supply one powerful objective, which could 
serve for special work in all the schools. This application was readily granted, and 
I have since received an appropriation for twelve more microscopes. I believe the 
New York City public schools, borough of Manhattan and the Bronx, are the only 
schools in the country that can boast of the possession of these beautiful instruments 
for domestic-science classes. The use made of the microscope in the lessons on the 
chemistry of foods and of cookery, also of fire, air, and water, is shown iu the work 
sent you. It is invaluable in our school. It develops the powers of observation, 
concentration, and judgment, and unfolds to the child the beauties of nature. There 
is much that can not be taught without it; for instance, the germ theory, fermen- 
tation in bread making, vinegar, cider, wine, etc. Decomposition, decay, disease, 
structure of fiber, trichina iu fiber, composition of blood, are shown by its use in 
the meat lesson. 

In the bread lesson the structure of and cell growth, structure of the grains, 
showing relative position and proportion of bran, gluten, and starch ; in the lesson on 
water as food, purity of and cause of disease by drinking impure water, and iu the 
lesson on milk, the necessity for sterilization, cheese molds and fungi. 

A number of the jiupils in one of the cooking classes of Grammar School Xo. 85 gave 
the lesson on the grains before the microscopical society a few weeks ago, and were 
highly praised for their intelligent work and beautiful drawings. 

My teachers are working faithfully to keep up with the jirogress ol' all the sciences 
and research that bear upon the proper conduct of the home, and particularly the 
investigation relating to the food and nutrition of man. They have studied and 
worked with me in the biological laboratory of the New York University every Sat- 
urday during the winter, and we have planned to continue this study in connection 
with physiological chemistry at the summer course of this same university. 

With such intelligent and earnest workers, do you think it too extravagant to hope 



35 

that an article may some day he written telling that the teaching of cookery or home 
science has greatly reduced infant mortality, contagious diseases, intemperance (in 
eating and drinking), divorces, insanity, pauperism, competition of labor between 
the sexes, men's and women's clubs, etc. ? 

You have asked me my hope for the future for this work, and this is my firm hope : 
That this work, so truly woman's, will, by forming a part of every girl's education, 
bring about great changes in the home life. The girl who learns to-day the chem- 
ical composition of the potato, as well as how to cook it, will hardly, as the future 
mothei-, boast that her six months' boy "just loves" potatoes, nor will she be foolish 
enough to allow him a taste of everything at the table. She has been trained to 
know that the little white hearse has stood at the door of many a home because the 
young mother did not know how to feed and cloth and nurse her baby. 

The " little woman " who has taken the lessons on combustion and economy in the 
use of fuels will not use the full force of gas in a half a dozen burners to cook her 
dinner, for she has learned that one burner turned very low will keep water at boil- 
ing point, and that no amount of heat can make it hotter. 

The simple little experiments in the school kitchen on the composition of air have 
caused the little housekeeper to realize that it is positively injurious to health to 
sit in closed rooms on the winter evenings with lamps lighted or the gas stoves burn- 
ing without any flue connections. And so it is with the lesson on the chemistry of 
cleaning. Our little gii'l is wonderfully interested in the bacteria of the dishcloth, 
and the ice box, and the garbage pail, and when she becomes mistress of a home 
these things will receive her attention as well as the parlor, library, and music 
room. If John cannot aftbrd to give her all Ihese rooms, she has beentrained to know 
that she can be just as happy if she must make one room answer the three purposes, 
and besides, being an American, she has this thought to comfort her, that under this 
glorious Government her thrift and economy may help to place her husband among 
the millionaires. With such a wife John will not need to go to the liquor store, nor 
will you see John, jr., among the boys who buy a hot fried cake for a penny and a 
cup of coffee for a penny, and stand in the snow and slush to eat them, as I have 
seen them do down in the Post-Office Square. For this little mother, I would have 
you know, learned how to make whole-wheat bread at school, and she knows that 
one of her nice light' muffins and a little flat bottle of heated and cooled milk which 
she tucked in Johnny's pocket in the morning will give him more nourishment than 
a cart load of coff'ee and fried cakes. Such a little wife and mother is a blessing to 
her home and consequently to the State. If she has servants they are good ones, 
because she is a capable mistress. If she has not, she has leaxned to work so neatly 
and to so economize in time and strength that she scarcely misses them. 

If the teaching of domestic science in (mr public schools produces such women — 
and it surely must — I think you will agree with me that the State and the nation 
reap the benefit. 

The following statements have been taken from the printed report 
of the supervisor of cookery to the board of education, June 6, 1898: 

Applications for the establishment of cooking classes have been made by the 
principals of (13 additional) public schools. 

This is very gratifying when it is remembered that the number of applications 
made this year exceeds the entire number entered from the year 1887, when cookery 
was introduced, to the present year. These applications were obtained through the 
personal visits of the supervisor and were the voluntary acts of the principals. 
While this method of introducing the work consumed much time, it at least had the 
advantage of leaving no room for complaints, nor have any complaints been made; 
on the contrary, great praise and appreciation have been received from all. The 
supervisor earnestly recommends that the work be extended as rapidly as possible. 

The cooking in the evening schools has been highly satisfactory, and it is greatly 



36 

to be hoped that it may he introduced into evening schools for women during the 
coming year. The young girls and women who attend these schools are certainly 
ambitious for knowledge when they are willing to study two hours after a hard 
day's work. Great pride is taken in educating them for typewriters, stenographers, 
and bookkeepers, thus crowding the market with cheap labor. Would it not be 
better for the State if these women were taught just enough bookkeeping to enable 
them to keep the household accounts accurately and neatly, to understand taxation, 
to lease a house and know their legal responsibility as tenants, as they do in France? 
How many members of the class in chemistry in the Evening High School for 
Women have taken up that branch in order to hotter fit themselves to be home- 
keepers f Do they realize that there is no science so intimately connected with the 
very life of man as chemistry? How many would read with interest and profit the 
bulletins on the Chemistry and Economy of Food, furnished free by the Govern- 
ment? Probably not one. If, then, the study of cookery tends to fit our girls for 
their true station in life, and it is held by all who have made domestic economy their 
study that it does, should it not form a part of every girl's education? 



EQUIPMENT OF KITCHENS. 

All applications to the building and supply committees and departments have met 
with the most generous and courteous responses. An appropriation of $214 for the 
purchase of microscopes recommended by the supervisor was granted, and these 
beautiful instruments are the pride of the teachers of cookery and the principals 
interested in the sciences. At the request of the supply committee the supervisor 
was present when the awards for kitchen supplies were given out. She has also met 
the representatives of the building department at each new kitchen, in order to 
advise with them as to placing of blackboard, stoves, etc. Each kitchen is fur- 
nished with the following equipment: 



Bath brick. 
Whisk broom. 
Brushes: 

Vegetable. 

Stove, blacking. 

Stove, polishing. 
Oilcloth. 
Cheese cloth. 
Tablecloth. 
Corkscrew. 
Clotheshorse. 
Napkins, fringed. 
Stove polish, enameline. 
Towel rack, roller. 
Thermometers. 
Bowls: 

1 qt., white. 

Large mixing, yellow. 
Custard cups, yellow. 
Cups and saucers. 
Dish: 

Pressed glass, 8-in., plain. 

Vegetable, 8-in., oval. 
Jars : 

Mason's 1-pt. 

Mason's 1-qt. 
Jugs, 1-pt. 



Nappies : 

8-in. 

7-in., scalloped. 
Plates : 

Bread and butter. 

Dinner, 7-in. 

Soup, 6-in. 

Tea, 6-in. 
Platters : 

Medium, 10-in. 

Large, 12-in. 
Teapots. 
Soup tureen. 
Double agate boilers : 

Iqt. 

2qts. 

4 qts. 
Butter crock, 1 qt. 
Carving set (knife, fork, and steel). 
Cleaver, 7 in. 

Soap dish, agate, hanging. 
Forks : 

Table, plated. 

Kitchen. 
Knives : 

Table, plated. 

Table, iron. 



37 



Knives — Continned. 

Bread. 

Chopping. 

Palette. 

Vegetable, French. 
Larding needles. 
Can openers. 
Pans: 

Dripping. 

Frying, No. 1. 

Frying, No. 3. 
Plates, agate. 
Saucepan, lipped, agate, covered : 

No. 10. 

No. 14. 

No. 20. 
Scales, large, with scoop, 12 lbs.. No. 24. 
Teaspoons, plated. 
Tablespoons, plated. 
Lemon squeezer. 
Bins: 

Sugar, 5 lbs. 

Flour, 25 lbs. 
Boxes : 

Bread. 

Pepper. 

Salt. 

Spice. 
Apple corers. 
Biscuit cutters. 
Colanders, agate. 
Egg whisk. 
Flour dredgers. 
Funnels, small month. 
Graters. 



Oyster broilers. 
Potato mashers : 

Wire. 

Wooden. 
Measures, graduated : 

ipt. 

Iqt. 
Melon molds. 
Pans : 

Bread. 

Cake. 

Dish, tin, one 4-qt. 

MuflSn, iron, 8 holes. 

Muffin, 8 holes. 

Roll, 8 holes, Russia. 

Roll, French. 
Vegetable, press (Hennis). 
Coffeepots, 2 qts. 
Shakers, soap. 
Soup strainers, wire : 

Small. 

Medium. 
Skimmers. 
Sieves, flour. 
Scoops. 
Steamer. 

Trays, japanned, oval, medium. 
Tins, jelly-cake. 
Dishcloth, wire. 
Bread boards. 
Chopping bowls, 12 in. 
Dish mops, small. 
Ice picks. 

Rolling pins, revolving handles. 
Spoon, wooden. 



The furniture of the class room consists of a large marble-topped table (which 
serves as a dining table and as a demonstration table), kitchen table, dresser, speci- 
men case, and clock. The floors are covered with linoleum. There are gas ranges, 
instantaneous water heaters, and large comfortable chairs with arm rests. Chem- 
icals and chemical apparatus are iturchased as required. In addition to the above 
a number of schools have the food charts published by the United States Department 
of Agriculture. 

EXAMINATION OF APPLICANTS. 

An examination of applicants for special teachers of cookery was held in October, 
1897. Special subjects for the examination of candidates were suggested by the 
supervisor, and questions relating thereto were submitted by her. Six teachers were 
appointed from the eligible list. 



VISITS TO SCHOOLS. 



Visits have been regularly made, as shown in monthly reports, and such aid and 
suggestions given to the teachers as were found necessary. The city superintend- 
ent has been advised as to the appointments, transfers, and promotions of teachers. 



38 

CONFERENCES WITH TEACHERS. 

Teachers have met the supervisor ou Friday afternoon of eacli week at Public 
School 43, for lectures in chemistry. They were also enabled to do considerable 
laboratory work, as this school had been supplied with some chemicals and appa- 
ratus by the teacher of cookery (now supervisor) under an appropriation granted by 
the board of trustees in 1895. The lectures on the chemistry of food and of cookery 
were given by Mr. Sieberg, principal of this school, after 3 o'clock, through courtesy 
of the supervisor, who had been special teacher of cookery in his school for six years. 
These lectures, experiments, and the tests for adulterations in foods have proved 
invaluable to the teachers, and they feel that they have enjoyed an unusual advan- 
tage in this course. Mr. Hyatt, principal of Public School 85, is an enthusiast on 
cooking in the public schools, and he also has given valuable aid gratis in micros- 
copy and botany to the supervisor and her teachers. As he has been a member 
of the microscopical society for thirty years, it was a great pleasure to study with 
him. And lastly, the teachers have met the supervisor every Saturday afc the New 
York University, where she arranged for a course in biology with laboratory practice. 
The object of the course being to study the digestive processes of the lower ani- 
mals, as a foundation for the study of the human alimentary system, special atten- 
tion was given to those animals that serve as food for man. 

The teachers have entered into the spirit of all this work with the greatest possi- 
ble enthusiasm, and have given verbal and written expressions of their hearty appre- 
ciation of the aid and guidance of the supervisor. It has been a delight to her that 
her experience has made it possible to help them thus, and she thinks the board of 
education may be proud of this body of teachers who labor so faithfully to make 
themselves more able in their specialty. 

COURSES OF STUDY. 

A manual was prepared in October, 1897, by the supervisor and, by the direction 
of the special committee on instruction, was submitted to the secretary of the com- 
mittee ou manual training. After careful examination by him it Was placed in the 
hands of the city superintendent, who duly examined it and, on November 30, decided 
to submit it to the committee on instruction with the recommendation that 1,500 
copies be printed. Typewritten copies of this manual have been furnished the 
teachers until such time as it may be printed, and the supervisor earnestly recom- 
mends that it be done without further delay. The principals of the manual training 
schools are anxious to secure copies, and many requests have been received from 
various institutions throughout this country, and also from London and Canada. 

The manual may seem perhaps to be too scientific for girls in our grammar schools, 
but we who teach from it are convinced that it is not. Many thousands of these 
girls never go beyond the grammar schools, and here or not at all they must be 
trained for the business they hope to follow through life, and this business is home 
making. Home making is the business of women by Divine right. In an age when 
all business processes are being put upon scientitic bases, why should we not teach 
our girls that science bears an important relation to housekeeping in a variety of 
ways? The better they understand the philosophy of the ordinary things of life the 
better they will perform them and the easier it will be to fill their minds with a 
sense of the dignity of labor at home. The morethey learn of the chemistry of cookery 
the fewer failures there will be. A girl should be taught the nutritive value of food 
as well as its cost ; the sanitation of the home as well as its tidiness. Such training 
must produce prudent, economical, and thrifty housewives. They are much needed 
in America. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

Many visitors from all parts of the country and from the various organizations 
and institutions in our city have been entertained by the supervisor, and all have 



39 

expressed themselves as pleased with the manner in which this branch of manual 
training is being taught in the public schools. 

Teachers have been gratified by the assurances of parents that the work was of 
practical value in their homes. 

Numerous letters of inquiry and congratulation have been received and answered. 

The library at the New York University has been placed at the disposal of the 
supervisor and teachers of cookery. All Government bulletins relating to food and 
nutrititin have been furnished to the teachers at the request of the supervisor. 

The schools in London and Paris were visited by the supervisor during the summer 
of 1897 and re])orts of visits given to the city superintendent and to the committee 
on instrnction. 

A resolution was passed by this committee, at the request of the supervisor, that 
the number in classes should not exceed 30. Most of the principals divided the 
classes exceeding that number. 

Visits have been made by the supervisor and teachers of cookery to various food 
manufactories, Hour mills, etc. ; also to the aquarium and museum of Natural History. 

The supervisor visited Pratt Institute, Philadelphia Cooking School, Teachers' 
College, and the food exhibit at Philadelphia for the benefit of her work. 

This report will be closed with some examples of the lessons in cooking 
given by teachers in the New York schools during the past year, as well 
as of the work (written exercises and drawings) of pupils performed 
in connection with these lessons. This work was based upon subjects 
given to the teachers by the supervisor from the manual referred to 
before, and is a demonstration of the progress that has been made in a 
comparatively short time toward raising the dignity of home science by 
making the basis of the teaching the elementary jirinciples of the 
science of food and nutrition and keeping the practical work of cookiug 
in its proper place as a laboratory demonstration of the principles 
taught. 



U. S. Dept, of Agn , Bui. 56. Office of Expt Stations. 



Plate 




GiRL COOKING. 
Drawn by E. A. C. 



APPENDIX. 



LESSONS, EXERCISES, AND DRAWINGS FROM THE COURSE IN 

COOKERY. 

SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON "WATER. 



Boilino- /Use of thermometer. Testing temperatures. 

* I Blood heat. Simmering. 



Experiments showing 
physical properties. 



Evaporation. 



Is it destroyed? 
What is steaui? Vapor? 
Which is hotter? 
Mineral matter remaining. 

Why water assumes a spherical form when in- 
tensely heated. 



I Some suhstances insoluble. 
Starch. Sugar. Salt. 
Boiling to recover the substance dissolved. 

Suspension.. jChalk and insoluble material. 

Filtration. . JUse of porous material. 
[A means oi puriiication. 

Conclusions: The danger of it carrying disease-bearing gernis or poisons in conse- 
quence of its great solvent power. Filtered to strain out or absorb visible impurity. 
Boiled to destroy invisible disease germs. 

Chemical composition : Decomposition by means of the metal sodium attracting 
the oxygen of the water. Hydrogen remains. Tested for blue flame. 

Showing why water should not be kept in contaminated air. 

Boiled water is tasteless. Dissolved gase.s are lost. On ex- 
posing again to fresh air the gases, principally oxygen, will 
be reabsorbed. 

Dissolves carbon dioxid, causing effervescence. 

Fish will not live in boiled water. 



Dissolves gases 



Impurities in water 



Dust mav contain. {^^g^^^^.^^ living matter. 
[Dead animal matter. 

Mineral matter. Lead. 
Crust formed on kettle lids and in boilers. 
Such waters better boiled before using. 
Use of living matter in water. 



Its influence on digestion : Digestion a softening and breaking up of food by means 
of body fluids. Indigestion often a want of fluid condition of digestive juices. Its 
wide distribution shows its importance, both to vegetable and animal kingdoms, and 
ranking it next to air in A'^alue. 

Water as a means of cleansing: Different action of hard and soft water for this 
purpose. Hard water wastes soap. Importance of its liberal use. 

Water for cooking purposes: The saving of food nutriment by use of the double 
boiler, where vegetables or cereals can be kept at a lower temperature for a longer 

41 



42 

time than when boiled violently in direct contact with the fire. Soups and boiled 
meats also better so cooked. 

I When put into hot water. 
When put into cold water. 
When put into salted water. 
When put into fresh water. 

H. P., Teacher. 

PUPILS' EXERCISES ON LESSON ON WATER. 

Water. — Water is a liquid formed by the chemical combination of the two gases, 
oxygen and hydrogen. Water is capable of existing in three forms, as a liquid, a 
solid, or a gas. 

When heated it goes off into the air as an invisible vapor, and when frozen it forms 
ice which is a solid. When frozen it expands, a fact which is demonstrated by the 
bursting of pipes, a catastrophe which occurs frequently in winter. When a solid 
is dissolved in water it is recoverable after the water has evaporated. Hot is more 
capable of dissolving a solid than cold water. 

Ninety per cent of fresh vegetables is water. Three fourths of the earth's surface 
is water, and seven ninths of the human body is composed of it. It is next in 
importance to air. 

In burniug sugar we discovered that it contained water the hydrogen of which 
burned with a blue flame. 

Water used for drinking purposes should not be conveyed through leaden pipes 
because it absorbs poison from them. 

As a classified food, water is a mineral or inorganic food, and its importance places 
it at the head of a long list of foods. Water is so necessary to the body that a per- 
son can hardly live a day without it or some similar liquid. 

E. E. 

Water in cooking. — Soft water is best for cooking purposes, when the object is to 
soften hard vegetables or to make soup or stew of meat, and also to extract the 
flavor of tea and coffee. 

Water is the greatest solvent. But suppose we want to cook tender green vegeta- 
bles or onions, if soft or rain water is used all the pretty green color and the flavor 
will be dissolved out. So for these, use hard spring water or put salt in it to harden 
it. We proved this by boiling one onion in salt or hard water and another in soft 
water. 

The latter was all broken up and had no taste. The first one was perfect in shape 
and had a delicious sweet flavor. It had lost nothing. 

Water. — Water is a compound it contains two elements oxygen and hydrogen. 
Hydrogen burns with a blue flame, this can be found out by burning sugar. 

Water is a mineral and contains organic bodies. It contains million of inhabit- 
ants they live on the organic matter or animal matter, they must be smaller than 
they are, these are called microbes. If the water is an acid vegetable will appear 
in the water, if an alkali it will be an animal. We can test this with litmus paper. 
The acid will turn red and the alkali changes back to blue. 

Water does not dissolve all substances. It takes one pint of water to dissolve two 
pouuds of sugar and only six ounces of salt to one pint of water. It also dissolves 
gases. The purest water is rain, sometimes it is not pure, because there is sometimes 
a disease all over the city and when the first rain falls it collects all the impurities. 
The blood coatains nearly 90 per cent water, vegetables 99 per cent, the body § per 
cent, an the earth three-fourths water. 

We use water for cleaning purposes also for cooking. Springs are produced by 
the rain first coming down and filtering through the porous material, that water con- 



43 

tains a grocat deal of mineral matter, when water contains lime and magnesium it is 
very hard. Water is sometimes made hard by salt being piit in it and allowing it to 
l)oil. Water absorbs the heat from the body. Fruits contain a great deal of water. 

I. M. 

SYLLABUS OP LESSON ON AIR. 

I. 

Air is first in importance of all that is necessary for life. 

Water ranks second. 

Solid food third. 

How air links our lives with that of plants. 

Most delicate of all substances (air thermometer the most 

perfect). 
Most powerful in motion. 
Without air we could neither see, hear, touch, taste, nor 

smell. 
The part it takes in cooking. 



Ideas and facts to be 
developed during 
progress of illustra- 
tions and experi- 
ments. 



II. 



Physical properties of. 



Invisible ] 

Inodorous IProve by observation. 

Colorless J 



Elastic 

Has weight. 



■ IProve by experiment. 



Elements. 



Compoundaubstances., 



III.— Chemical Composition. 

I Experiment: to extract oxygen. 
Two pupils assisting; class observing, mak- 
ing drawings of apparatus, and forming 
written conclusions. 

,., . fExperiraent: removing oxygen from a jar of 
Nitrogen, dilut-) ^^j. . making use of property of oxygen dis- 
, lug element. ^ covered in previous experiment. 

fRespiration. 
. Combustion. 
Carbon dioxid, poisonous element: expen-lp^^jg^y 

ments to show how produced. • | Effervescence. 

UTermentation. 



(Combustion. 
Respiration. 
Decay. 

IV.— Discussion. 

The discovery in 1894 by Professor Ramsay of another gas found in atmosphere 
and named argon. 

V. — Conclusions. 

(Placed by pupils on blackboard as they are formed.) 

Its history; when discovered; by whom; how widely dis- 
tributed; one-fifth of air, proven; chief ingredient of water; 
in all organic matter ; one-third of solid earth ; one-half of 
minerals. 
Oxygen (Bathes the body internally, cleansing and removing all im- 
purities by a slow combustion. 

Office of countless air cells in lungs. 

The gas that makes fires, all fuels, and lights burn. 

.Result if air were undiluted oxygen. 



44 



Nitrogen 



Carbon dioxid. 



Serves to render air less powerful. 
Nothing will burn in it; animals die in it. 
Puts out a flame instantly. 
Indifferent; neutral; does not easily combine. 
Found largely in Arm animal tissues. 
Basis of animal bodies. 

Its wonderful activity when life ceases, combining immedi- 
ately with hydrogen to form ammonia, a product of decay. 

The great source of plant nourishment. 

Interchange of elements between animals and plants. 

I Takes in — Produces — 

Carbon dioxid Starch. 
Water Oxygen. 

Anin^ai JStarch aud fat Carbon dioxid. 

^^^^ lOxygeu Water,fat. 



VI. — Conclusions. 
(With instructions for compositions.) 

Importance of thorough ventilation. 

Sufficient supply of pure air furnished. 

Impure air removed — how make use of air currents. 

A perfect nonconductor — air inclosed between two windows. 

How temperature is measured — thermometer. 

How weight is measured — barometer. 

Simple experiments to prove pressure. 

Air a mixture. Any one of its elements breathed alone would be dangerous. 

How to best ventilate rooms. 

Impure air the greatest source of sickness. We may have abundance of food and 
water, but if obliged to breathe impure air these blessings become a source of 
disease. 

Importance of liaving with every morsel of food a corresponding morsel of air. 

Sources of impurities must be removed. Teach others importance of doing this, 
and so remove the cause of disease. 

Wholesome foods become poisons if our living rooms are not well ventilated. 

Wrong to remain from one to two hours in ill-ventilated public buildings with 
numbers of human beings constantly poisoning the atmosphere. 

Impure air the chief cause of consumption. 

Thk Part Air Takes in Cooking. 



Cooking of meats. 



The contained air in the tissues is expanded by heat, forcing 
the fibers apart, making more easily masticated. This is the 
point at which heat should be checked, as if further contin- 
ued the material shrivels, losing flavor and nutriment with 
the moisture, and becoming dry and indigestible. This fact 
made use of in broiling aud roasting. 



Most delicious, light, and easily digested doughs are those made light by common 
air. Advantage of these over baking powder and yeast breads. 
How moisture in air influences cooking. 
How pressure in air influences cooking.- 
Cooking on mountain tops; in low valleys. 

H. P., readier. 



45 

PUPILS' EXERCISES ON LESSON ON AIR. 

Pressure of air. — Remove the shell from a hard-boiled egg and put the egg iuto 
the mouth of a wide bottle that will just fit it. You can leave it there all day and 
it would uot move. The air in the bottle helps to press it up as much as the air on 
top is pressing it down and it is kept in the same place. If you were in a crowded 
place and people were pressing you on all sides alike you would remain in the same 
place. 

Now take out the egg, and put a piece of burning match in the jar and let it burn 
out. Then quickly put back the egg and watch it slowly move downward and all 
at once drop into the bottle. The burning match expanded the air and it escaped. 
When the bottle cooled the air in it contracted and so filled a smaller place, as no 
more air could get in and there was an empty place between the air and egg and 
the force of air above the egg being greater, it was forced into the bottle. 

E. B. 

Nitrogen. — We had a pan filled with water and put a button fastened by a wire 
on the edge. Then we put a piece of phosphorous on the button and lit it, placing 
a bottle over the top. It made a very bright light, and of course anything burning 
must consume oxygen. We then saw a very peculiar thing happen. It was water 
going upward. This showed that an empty space had been formed in the bottle 
and something had to fill its place. Now, the water being nearest, it was used. 
This experiment also shows how much oxygen was used, and we found by measure- 
ment it was about one-fifth. This amount then showed the oxygen. We care- 
fully lifted up the bottle, clapped over it a piece of glass. And now we test it as 
we did oxygen and carbon dioxid. A lighted match or taper was put out immedi- 
ately. Animal life would be stifled in the same way. 

F. E. C. 

Gases of the air. — What is air? Pure air is an invisible fluid, made np of two 
gases — oxygen and nitrogen, without which we cannot live. 

Men have been known to live without food many days, but man has never been 
known to exist without air. 

Oxygen is far too liyely a gas to live in, so kind nature has diluted it for us 
with another gas called nitrogen. If a person were piit into a room filled with 
oxygen his face would first turn red, then his body would turn the same color, then 
his heart would beat very rapidly, and finally the arteries about this most impor- 
tant of all organs would burst. 

Oxygen will burn everything it comes in contact with. This accounts for the 
burning up process which is always going on within our own bodies. 

Oxygen can be extracted from the air by the use of electricity, but as this is not 
easy to work with in a schoolroom, we use manganese dioxid mixed with an equal 
quantity of chlorate of potash. 

To extract the oxygen from these two substances, they are put together iuto a 
test tube to which is attached another tube. The latter is of very small circumfer- 
ence and has two or three crooks in it. Then place a large pan on the table filled 
one-third with water and put in it a block of wood about one inch thick. Then 
take an ordinary jar and fill it with water and place upside down so that the mouth 
of the jar is about halfway on the board. Then heat the tube in which the chem- 
icals are and put the tube to which it is attached iuto the water right under the 
mouth of the jar. The water in the jar will then be seen to disappear gradually, 
and in its place will be the oxygen itself. To prove this, take a piece of wood and 
thrust it into the jar. It will take fire instantly and burn with a very bright flame. 

To extract nitrogen from phosphorus is still more simply done. Attach a piece of 
wire to a button and on the button place a piece of phosphorus, being careful not 
to touch it with the fingers, as it will burn to the bone. The wire should be 



46 

attached to the pan so that the button will be just above the water without touch- 
ing it. 

If you give the phosphorus long enough it will burn of itself, but if you are in a 
hurry put a match to it. It will throw sparks in every direction, so you must be 
very careful not to go too near it. 

Place a jar over the phosphorus while it is burning. The jar will be seen to 
almost fill with a thick, gray smoke, but the bottom of the jar will be about one- 
fifth full of water. Light a match and throw it into this smoke, and it will go out 
instantly. The gas which has filled this jar is nitrogen. 

Oxygen and nitrogen are the two gases of which the air is mainlj' composed, but 
the air also contains a third gas, which is carbon dioxid, and is the gas that we 
breathe out from the lungs. 

L. E. 

SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON POOD— ITS CHEMISTRY. 

I. — Introduction. 

1. Food defined ("Ignorance of its meaning. 

\Ignorance of relative value. 

II. — Development. 

IfOro-anic [Carbonaceous. 

Food divisions '' jNitrogenous. 

)lnorganic....|JJat^e-^^^^^^ 
Food combinations — Importance of mixed diet. 



2. Chemistry applied to 
preparation. i 



Cookiuff. 



rConvection. 
Processes --Conduction. 

(Radiation. 

fStarch converted to sugar. 
Changes — Sugar converted to caramel. 

[Effect upon albuminoids. 

Ferments j Yeast raised breads. 

I Preservation of food. 



3. Chemistry applied to di- J ^alivary-con version of starches to sugar, 
e-estion ^Gastric — albuminoids to peptones. 

° ' [intestinal — fats — emulsions. 

III. — Conclusion. 

1. Chemistry a safeguard ../Adulteration. 

[Improper cooking. 

2. Chemistry a means to fKnowledge ennobling home labor. 

happiness. \Knowledge surest road to economy. 

E. A. C, Teacher. 

PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON FOOD— ITS CHEMISTRY. 

We have learned in our cooking class that everything vre eat is not food, been use 
only what nourishes the body can be called food. 

We have also learned of what substances our food is made up, and which are best 
for the building up of our bodies. 

We have learned that we must not eat one kind of food, but to combine difiereut 
foods so that all parts of our bodies may be properly nourished. 

We now kuow what makes our muflSns rise, and what changes take place, when 
they are put in the oven, and what makes our dough rise after yeast is put in it. 

We enjoy cooking at home very much now that we know why we do certain things, 
and what our food is going to do for us after it is cooked. 

It pleases my mother very much to see me cook at home what we have made in 
school. 

M. C. 



47 



SYLLABUS or LESSON ON CEREALS. 



Order Graminea' .../Principal 
t kinds .., 



fWheat. 
Oats. 
Rice. 
Rye. 
Barley. 
Maize. 



Production /Seeds of certain grasses sown in antnmn or gTowiu<!; in all but 
I coldest climates. 



Composition 



Water. 
Protein. 
Starch. 
Fat. 

Salts. 

Cellulose. 

Diastase. 



Food value Contain every element necessary for nutrition at small cost. 

I Thrashing. 
Winnowing. 
Hulling. 
Grinding. 



Manner of cooking . .Softening of starch and cellulose by addition of water. 

( Blight. 
Fungi. J Mildew. 
[ Must. 



Causes of loss 



Insects./ Beetles. 
i Moths. 

i Many feed on insects and seeds injurious to grain. 
Birds .J Bobolink exception, causing great loss to rice grow- 
I ers. 



r Feeding and fattening animals. 
Other uses of grain..; Imitation coffee. 

[ Intoxicating liquors. 

Food and litter for animals. 

Hats. 

Uses of straw ) Mats. 

I Bedding. 

Thatching. 
[ Packing. 

f Beds. 

Chaff <^ Packing. 

[Adulteration. 

Origin of name / Ceres goddess of corn 

\ Cerealia feast held m Rome. 



Wheat 



Native of Lands around Mediterranean. 



Color /Red. 

i White. 



Varieties 



Time of sowing ../ Sprin 
^ 1 Wint 



Winter. 



Appearance i. Bearded. 

1 Bald. 



. Food value . . .Easy of digestion ; almost perfect food. 



48 



Wheat 



Uses. 



Bread. 

f Flakes. 
Breakfast foods.. J Granules. 

[Germs, etc. 

r Macaroni. 

Pastes } Spaghetti. 

[Vermicelli. 

( Introduced into China 2700 B. C. 
History J Used as vegetable in early Middle Ages in Eng- 

' I land. 

[ America greatest wheat field of the world. 



Oats 



f Varieties ....(Black. 
1 White. 



Uses. 



Breakfast foods 



r Hulled. 



Steamed. 
Rolled. 



Thin cakes from meal. 
Food for horses. 

„ , T f Very nutritious if suflSciently cooked and hull 

Food value.. I J^^^^,^^ 

( In cultivation before Christian era. 

History ' Grown in colder climates than wheat. 

[ Wild oats used for hay in California. 



Barley 



Native of Central Asia. 

I Barley water. 
Fermented liquors. 
Soups. 
Bread. 

r First of all grasses used for food. 

History -^ Up to middle of seventeenth century principal 

I breadstuff of England. 



Rice 



fNativeof...JI°f^Vt , ^ ,. 
\ Northern Australia. 

f Large quantity of starch. 
Food value ..J Little protein and fat. 

[Easy of digestion — one hour. 



Uses. 



History 



Vegetable. 

Cakes. 

Puddings. 

Adulterate wheat Hour. 

Fatten poultry. 

Saki by fermentation. 

Food of one-third population of world. 
Asia and America two largest rice fields. 
Requires much water during growth. 



Rye, 



Native of Black and Caspian seas. 

(Next to wheat. 
Harder of digestion, caused by acetous fermen- 
tation. 



49 



Rye 



Com 



Bread f Russia. 

[ Germany. 

jjses I Thin cakes. Sweden . 

Substitute for coffee. 

Whisky 1^ , , ,. 

Kvass I y fermentation. 

Grows on poorer soil and in colder clime than other cereals. 

Native of America. 

Distinguishing features ../ largest and handsoinest. 

° ° I Bearing two kinds or ilowers. 

i White. 

Varieties I^^T' 

) Sweet. 

(Pop. 

f Nutritious. 

Food value J. Rich in oil. 

[ Cheapest cereal. . 

Breads. 

To cheapen wheat bread by admix- 
ture. 
Vegetable. 
Fodder. 

Uses J Fattening animals. 

Distilling. 

Sugar. 

Oil. 

Paper. 

Fuel. 



History. 



Practical value 



Specimens 



In cultivation before discovery of 

America. 
In 1847 potato famine increased its 

use in Ireland. 
Supplanting millet in South Africa. 
National bread of Mexico. 
Tortillas. 
Polenta in Italy. 

As they contain all the nutrients, 
meats and more expensive foods 
can be used in smaller quantities 
where whole grain is used. 

Grains on the straw and the difler- 

ent preparations. 
Plants grown in school. 

N. N. 



PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON CEREALS. 

Oats. — Oats are classed among cereals, and belong to the grass family. Long ago, 
when people believed in gods and goddesses, they thought that there was a goddess 
of corn, whom they called Ceres, from which they derived the name of cereals. They 
believed that she had a daughter named Proserpina, who was once taken in a king's 
palace and had to go there for a few months in every year. Her mother, being very 
much grieved at hearing this, would let nothing grow while she was away. In the 
spring of every year, Proserpina returned, and again things began to grow, as before 
Proserpina's absence. 

9900— No. 56 4 



50 

Oats go through much preparation before being cooked. First they are cut and 
thrashed, then hulled, then steamed, and last of all, crushed, the last process, half 
cooking them. 

Before going through these processes, oats consist of straw, which is at the bot- 
tom, the ear at the top, the chaff, which is the outside of the oat, and the grain 
inside the chaff, containing the bran. When oats are being tied, we call it, "Bind- 
ing the sheaves." 

In hulling oats, we take off the hull, and in rolling oats, we put them between 
rollers, after being hulled. The hulled oats take ten hours to cook, and the rolled 
take about two hours. 

Rice, oatmeal, hominy and farina are cereals. The Scotch, especially, are very 
fond of cereals, and the Chinese are fond of rice. For the reason that cereals are 
strengthening, when a horse is ready for hard work or to race, he is given oats. They 
contain proteid, which is called gluten, and helps to build up the system. 

K. K. 

SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON BREAD. 

"Remember thy bread and bake it well, for he will not be kept well that eateth 
his bread as dough." 



Materials 



History. 



(Picture of hai-vest field. 

Different grains grown in the class room to study botany of. 

Study of the action of enzynis in germination. 

Samples of the different milling products. 

Picture of old-fashioned mill. 
• Microscope and slides to study cross section of grains. 

Gluten, wheat starch, iodin. 

Yeast cultuies. 

Supplementary reading : Bulletins and charts issued by the United 
States Department of Agriculture, History of a Mouthful of 
Bread, by Jean Mace. 

I The bread of the different people of the world. 
What portion uses wheat flour and eats light bread. 
Besides the grains the use of chestnuts, Iceland moss, barks of 
trees, roots of plants. 



Processes in 
bread making. 



Mixing. 



Kueadini 



Raising 



Baking. 



[Neatness and care in measuring materials. 
jNecessity for lukewarm liquid. 
jConsistency of batter for different kinds of bread. 
(Proper handling of the spoon. 

Reasons for. 

Different methods employed. 
Which simplest and least tiring. 
How to tell when sufficiently kneaded. 
Danger from diseased hands. 
Different machines used. 

rReasons for. 

iTemperature required. 

^Length of time depending on quantity of yeast. 

I Effect of too long raising. 

(.Necessity of covering the dough. 

Size of loaf and molding. 
Small loaves better — why. 
Temperature of oven. 
I Effect of too hot or too cool an oven. 
Length of time for baking. 

Effect of heat in baking, cooking of starch — forma- 
tion of dextrin in crust — killing yeast. 
Danger of underdone bread. 



U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bui. 56, Office of Expt Stations 



Plate II. 



^;N' 



^m 




Bunch of Wheat. 

Drawn by A. P. 



51 



Flour. 



Manufacture 



(ibemistry.. 



II. 

Different grains used — which best, and why. 

Visit to a mill. 

Method of milling. 

Different kinds of flour. 

Test for good flour. 

Which flour best for bread. 

Why graham flour will not take the place of whole 

wheat. 
Use of pastry flour. 
Extravagance of using prepared flour. 

(Experiment to separate gluten from starch. 
JTest for starch. 

] Burning flour, to show presence of water and min- 
l eral matter. 



Yeast. 



History 



Biology 



/Story of its discovery. 
\Visit to a brewery. 



Study of different cultures under the raicro8coj)e. 
Its appearance — growth and comparison with other 
plants. 



Chemistry — 



Action in bread making 
Experiments — growth i 

lukewarm water. 
Alcoholic fermentation — experiments 

test CO2 — distill for alcohol. 
Acetous formation— souring of dough, 



ice water, boiling, and 



-collect and 



{Leaven . 
Bread making. 
Fermenting liquors. 

.Stale yeast . . . Cause of — bacteria present. 



Physiology 



III. 

Crust and crumb — experiments to show presence of 

dextrin. 
Toasted bread. 
Fresh and stale bread. 
Digestibility .^Slack baked — experiments using crumb of under- 
done bread to raise dough. 
Sour bread. 

Heavy and compact bread. 
^Mastication — experiment with saliva. 

I Muscle and bone forming — heat giving. (See charts 
and bulletins issued by United States Department 
of Agriculture.) 
Comparative value of different kinds of bread. 

I Homemade more wholesome and economical. 
Left-over bread and crumbs used for stuffing and simple deserts and 
digestible deserts, especially valuable for children. 
Stale-bread crumbs, for dipping croquettes, etc. 



Practical valne 
of science in 
the home. 



Never will use boiling water in mixing the batter for the dough. 
Will bake bread in small loaves to get more crust. 
Will never eat hot, fresh bread, underdone nor sour bread. 
Will make use of left-overs. 

Will know which kind of bread will give most nutriment to the 
body. 

"Bread is the staff of life; 
The honor of the husband. 
And the pride of the wife." 

E. B., Teacher. 



52 

PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON BREAD. 

Bread. — Bread cau be traced almost as far back, as the first man. lu different 
parts of the world, the natives use the cereal, which is the most abundant in their 
country. It is but a small portion of the world, that enjoys the luxury of good 
wheat flour. We should therefore, be thankful to our forefathers; who first planted 
the wheat, and enlightened the process of " Bread Making." We should show our 
gratitude, by trying to enlighten it still more. 

The people in the northern part of Sweedeu, bake their bread twice a year, and 
when eaten is like a brick. In Lapland, oats and the inner bark of the pine tree, 
are ground, mixed, and made into large, flat cakes, cooked over a fire. In Iceland, 
the icelaud-moss, is used, as we use flour. In some parts of the east, quite a (juan- 
tity of buckwheat is used. Inltalj' chestnuts. Eice-bread is the chief food, of the 
Chinese. 

The nourishment of bread, depends wholly upon its preparation. Bread should 
be light; heavy bread, is very difficult to digest. The more compact the bread, the 
more indigestible it is. 

The smaller the loaves, the more crust, which is easier to digest. The large loaves, 
are not apt, to be thoroughly cooked in the center; the yeast plant has not been 
killed. When eaten, the yeast will go on growing, in our stomach, changing starch 
into sugar, the sugar into alcohol and gas, then the alcohol into vinegar, thus caus- 
ing disorder in the stomach. 

Bread should be thorouglily masticated, the starch, while being chewed, will be 
changed, by the action of the ptyalin, into sugar, sugar being the easier to digest. 

Stale bread is preferable at all times, it will crumble easier, and the juices of the 
stomach cau operate much better. 

Bread that has become too stale, for table use, should not be thrown away, it can 
be used for many dift'erent purposes, it may be used for puddings, stuffings, toast 
and rolling croquettes. 

''The Baker," — in olden times, was respected in the community, and occupied a 
high position. F. L. 

Recipe for wholewheat bread. — 1 pint lukewarm water ; 1 teaspoonfnl salt; 1 or 3 
cakes yeast; flour enough to make a batter. 

Directions: Put water and salt into a large bowl add salt. Mix yeast with a 
little water and add. Stir in enough flour to make a drop batter. Beat until full 
of bubbles. Cover frith, clean towel. Stand in warm place until light. Now add 
flour enough to make a dough. Knead until smooth and elastic. Put into greased 
bowl cover and stand aside until two or three times its original size. Divide 
into small loaves mold to fit the pan. Cover stand aside. When light bake in a 
hot oven for 30 m. Good bread should have much crust and little crumb, and should 
not be too close-grained. If the bread be heavy it will be difficult to digest. The 
whole wheat bread is more nutritious because it contains more gluten which gives 
ns muscle and phosphate of lime which builds up bones and teeth. Sour bread is 
indigestible. 

We should not eat fresh bread because it is difficult to digest, nor bread that is 
sour as the acid is bad for the stomach. 

We can save all stale pieces of bread and use theiu for pudding stuffiing and also 
for rolling croquettes. L. McF. 

Experiments with yeast. — Put some yeast in pure molasses. No action. 

Fill another glass with lukewarm water add one teaspoon of molasses and a small 
piece of yeast. Stand in a warm place. 

Bubbles rise to the top, notice a smell of alcohol. The liquid is in a state of fer- 
mentation. 

Put a little of this liquid on a slide glass and examine under the microscope. We 
find a great many cells, these.are the yeast plants. 



U. S. Dept. of Agn., Bui. 56, Office of Expt. Stations 



Plate II 



o 



O 




o 




U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bui, 56, Office of Expt. Stations. 



Plate IV. 




Fig. 1.— Yeast Plants as seen under the Microscope. 

Drawn by L. F. 





.--.=-_„. 








t 








%-,\ J»-' '' 


5^ 


■t;. 


/ 


■>-:^'' 




: 


\ 


\ 


\' 


''2^ 


- - 


\ 







Fig. 2.— Cross Section of a Grain of Wheat as seen under the Microscope. 

Drawn by H. S 



53 

Some of them have sent out new cells like buds from them like other cells. Allow 
this liquid to stand for a day or so we get a strong odor of vinegar. 
Mix yeast with ice water add flour as food and put it in the ice box. 
Mix yeast with lukewarm water add flour as food and put it in a warm place. 
Mix yeast with boiling water add flour as food and stand aside. 
Examine these three glasses. 
In the first no bubbles are seen. 
In the second full of bubbles. 
In the third no bubbles are seen. 

This teaches us that cold water will keep the yeast plant fi"om growing. 
In warm water the yeast grows rapidly. 
Boiling water will kill the yeast plant. 

J. L. 



SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON BAKING POWDER— QUICK BREADS. 



1. Substances presented. .{Cje^mtartar^^, ^^^^ 



Composition ..) 



ia Vinegar, lemon juice, ammonia, 
Acids and alkalies discussed. < soap, baking soda. 

[b Tests with litmus. 
Substances combined in definite proportions. 
Small amount of starch used as a keeper. 



1. Effect when mixed dry — None. 



Experiment 



/Slight. 



Practical a p 
plication . .' 



2. Effect when moistoned with cold water (H.O) J ^a|"vescence 

3. Effect when moistened with ho tf Greater effervescence. 

water (HoO) 1 Violent escape of gas (CO.2). 

4. Reason for not using liquid acids and alkalies — Too hasty escape 

of gas. 

1. Baking powder combined with dry ingredients. 

2. Haste essential to prevent premature escape of (Moisture, 
gas \Waruith of air. 



3. Cooking. 



1. Liquid in batter. 1^, j, , 

2 VJ^it nf .wAn fC'as formed 



Heat of oven 



Test of purity. 



3. Muffins or biscuits rise. 

4. Porosity of muffins or biscuits — Causes, spaces occu- 
pied by gas. 

fl. Overabundance of starch — Thick when tested with boiling water. 
2. Ammonia — Odor when heated. 

3 Alum /Solution made acid with CiH402 (acetic acid), 
l^ ■ 'iDecoction logwood added — purple color. 

E. A. C. Teacher. 

PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON QUICK BREADS. 

Baking powder. — Baking powder is composed of two (juautities of cream of-tartar 
and one quantity of bi-carbonate of soda. 

Bicarbonate of soda is an alkali, and is sometimes made of common salt, but 
very often is obtained from a mineral substance called cryolite. 

Cream-of-tartar is an acid, a substance dissolved in the grapes. 

When the two substances are mixed there is no action between them. When a 
liquid is added there is a slight effervescence a small amount of carbon dioxid gas 
is formed. When they are moistened and heated a large amount of gas is formed. 

When a mixture having baking powder in it is put into the oven, the carbon 
dioxid gas wants to escape and it carries the mixture up with it and tiie mixture 
becomes light and porous. A. H. 



54 



History . . 



SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON THE POTATO 
Early 



Later lutioduced into Eu- 
rope. 



Botany 



Chemical 
analysis.' 



rBotanical name — Solanum tuberosum. 

Family — Deadly nightshade. 
> Climate — Temperate. 

Part used as food — Tuber. 
^Propagation — By buds or eyes. 

I Water. 
Starch. 
Nitrogenous matter. 
Mineral salts. 
Cellulose. 



/Native South America. 
ISpread into North America. 

By Spaniards, 16th cen- 
tury. 

Ireland, Sir John Haw- 
kins, 1565. 

England, Sir Francis 
Drake, 1585. 

England, Sir Walter 
Kaleigh, 1586. 



Experiment 



i Starch, water, and cellulose separated. 
Starch test — lodin. 
Starch microscopically/Granules, 
viewed. \Cell walls. 



Food value _ 



fT-v A ^ ', • (Proper cooking of starch. 

JDependent "Poncooking[g^^.^i^^.^g of cfllulose or vegetable liber. 

Dependent upon dietary /Fats. 
I combination. tAlbuminoids. 



Note 



/Practical value of in 
"^ struction. 



Pupils will not serve waxy potatoes. 
Will allow steam to escape. 
Will not use potato water. 
Will combine with food rich in nitrogen. 
Will keep potatoes in dry, cool place. 
Cook and thoroughly masticate all starchy 
foods. 

1. McM. A., Teacher. 

PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON THE POTATO. 

Tlie potato. — This vegetable is a native of South America, where it still grows 
wild. It was introduced into European countries by explorers. 

The potato belongs to the same family of plants as tobacco. It contains a j>oison, 
peculiar to this class, which may be extracted from the potato by cooking. 

The potato contains many compounds. The most important of these is starch. 
It also contains water, fat, cellulose, albumen and mineral matter. Starch is com- 
posed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. It is not flesh-forming but heat giving. 
A i^otato should be well chewed, so that the saliva can act upon the starch and 
change it to sugar. To cultivate the potato a good soil and a temperate climate are 
necessary. 

Some think that the potato is a healthful vegetable. This is only so when eaten 
with food rich in nitrogen, for it lacks albumen. Served with eggs, meat, or fish, 
the potato heljis to form a perfect diet. 

The people of Ireland use the potato as one of the chief articles of diet. But they 
drink large quantities of buttermilk, or skimmed milk, which contains a great deal 
of flesh forming material. 

The potato can be cooked in many ways. It can be baked, boiled, steamed, 
stewed, or fried. Of these the most digestible way of cooking is baking. A baked 
potato must be broken at one end, when taken from the oven, to allow the steam to 



U. S. Dept. of Agri , Bui. 56, Office of Expt, Stations. 



Plate V. 




O o 



O 



Fig. 1.— Milk as it appears under the Microscope. 

Drawn by M. P. 



*•' (tSTTi. 



Fig. 2. —Potato Starch as it appears under the Microscope. 

Drawn by J. S., age 14 years. 



55 

escape. Boiled potatoes are also digestible; but the water in whicli they are 
boiled must uot be used, because it contains the acrid juice. The potato when well 
cooked should be dry and mealy. 

E. N., Aged 15 years. 

The potato. — The potato is a native of South America, but was afterwards raised 
in North America. Sir John Hawkins introduced it into Ireland, where it is now 
the chief article of food, and Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh carried sam- 
ples of potatoes from America to Europe. They first became popular as a food in 
the latter part of the eighteenth century. Before that time, they were cultivated in 
gardens and not in fields. 

Potatoes belong to the nightshade order, a poisonous family of vegetables. They 
grow in temperate climates, and require a healthy soil. The part eaten is the tuber. 

Starch, sugar, water, fat, cellulose, and nitrogenous matter are contained in a 
potato. Starch will not dissolve in cold water, only in warm water. When it is 
heated to 320°, it changes to dextrin, or British gum. 

When part of a potato is seen through a microsco])e the starch grains can be readily 
distinguished. When they are scarce, rice, or other starchy foods can be served 
instead. 

Well-cooked potatoes should be dry and mealy; if they are waxy they are Jiot 
digestible. Before serving baked potatoes, the skin should be broken, to enable the 
steam to escape. 

R. S., Ifi years, 3 months. 

SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON MILK. 



Dairy industry. 



Consumers' k n o w 1 - 
edge of dairy prod- 
ucts. 



I Of great importance. 
United States considered one of leading dairy countries of the 
world. Chief occupation of great many farmers. 
Large quantities of products exporte<l. 

United States does not consume as much as some other coun- 
tries. 

Where milk comes from, if clean farm and cattle healthy. 

If honest milkman, f^^'^f^^^'^Pl^ly- , . ,, 
cause of dishonesty r"^*^'^^^^ demand full measure at low 
•' [ prices. 

I Not watered. 
Dirt or sediment. 
Diseased animals. 
Removal of cream. 
Preservatives. 

Rapid cooling after milking. 

How delivered from farms to supply large cities or country 

customers. 
Importance of care after delivered. 

Alkaline first drawn,] 
neutral in aboutLr 4. ..^ t^ 
one hour. Acid i„ Test with litmus. 

two or three. 



Fresh or sweet milk.. 



Appearance 



[Yellow-white. 
\Mixture. 

1 Water. 
Sugar. 
Fat. 
Casein, little albumen. 
Mineral matter. 



Effect of standiuff . . 



(Fat globules in suspension lighter than 
.< water, so rises to top of milk. 
I Acid assists. 



56 



Milk called perfect food. Contains an substances to sustain 
body, not sufficient amouat of some substances for adult. 



Fresh or sweet niilk.< 



To kill germs or bacteria, keep from 
souring, heating to 212^. Should not 

Sterilized { be sterilized when used for babies or 

invalids. 
Casein hardened. 

I French chemist, Louis Pasteur. 

Pasteurized s Heating to 160^ kills germs without 

( hardening casein and albumen. 

Cause due to (Organized ferments. 

[Unorganized ferments. 

I From air. 
Unclean vessels. 
Diseased farm hands. 
Diseased animals. 

Apply to care in keeping milk and employing honest milkmen. 

{Cream. 
Ciu'ds. 
Whey. 

Condensed milk Removal of large amount of water by evaporation. 

I Churning in factories or individuals. 
Made from sweet or sour cream, usually 
sour. 
Fresh and salt. 

Rancid butter caused by presence of casein. Nitrogenous 
foods more favorable to bacteria. 



Sour milk. 



Butter made from 
cream or whole 
milk. 



Uses 



Keeping 



Cheese . 



Adulterations 



Tests . - . 
Historv . 



/Used as addition to bread in cookiug 
■ 1^ and an ointment in some countries. 

Must be kept vers clean and from all 
odors. Absorbs volatile odors very 
readily from cheese, meat, vegetables. 

Excess of salt covers odor and taste. 
Oleomargarine made from animal fat 

cliurned with milk. 
Butteriue much the same as oleomarga- 
[ Tine. 

-Butter and oleomargarine heating. 



(Great many factories in the United 
■\ States, England, Holland. 



Kinds . 



{Whole milk.."] Great many dilferen 
Skim milk ... '• kinds come unde 
Cream cheese J these heads. 



Coagulation 



/Milk heated, then acid or rennet added. 
■ I^Separate curds from whey. 

(Pressed or shaped. 

Molding •! Colored usually. 

[Natural color pale yellow. 



Process 



Ripening 



I Bacteria absolutely nec- 
essary in cheese to ripen 
it; not liarmful; gives 
proiier llavor as result. 



Cheese 



57 



[Highly uitiogenous. 

Used as a food l Very valuable. 

[Muscle and bone forming. 



Cooking Renders more digestible. 

Digestion Richer cheeses more easily digested. 

A. B. H., Teacher. 
PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON MILK. 

Milk. — The dairy industry is carried on very extensively in the United States, but 
chiefly in the Middle Atlantic and North Central States. In large dairies where 
there are a great many men working, they should be careful to keep themselves 
and all the utensils very clean, as any dirt or harmful bacteria which may get into 
the milk are liable to cause disease. 

Inspectors are appointed who go round and see that the farms, animals, and 
stables are thoroughly clean. 

When milk is tirst drawn it is alkaline and warm. It should be put in a cool 
spring or where it will have fresh air and will cool quickly. Within an hour it 
becomes neutral and within a few hours begins to turn to an acid. 

Dishonest milkmen often adulterate it with water. This for two reasons is harm- 
ful. The water might not be pure and the harmful bacteria might cause disease. 
Persons who are fed on milk do not get the amcmut of nourishment in proper pro- 
portions. 

Milk is a perfect food for young children because it contains everything that the 
body needs: but for grown folks it is not; for this reason : although it contains most 
of the elements that the body needs yet they are not in sufficient quantities to sustain 
the life of a. grown person. 

When milk is to be transported milkmen sometimes put preservatives or sub- 
stances into the milk (generally borax or soda) to keep it from souring. 

Milk should be kept strictly cool, for hundreds of little bodies called germs which 
are floating around in the air some of which are friendly and others not, get into 
the milk and as they |iourish in warmth, they grow and increase rapidly, sour the 
milk a!id are liable to cause disease. 

Milk contains fat, water, sugar, mineral salts and casein but water is the most 
abundant. 

The sugar of milk or lactose is sometimes extracted from the milk and sold at 
druggists for sweeting milk for babies. 

Cream, which is the fat of milk being lighter than the other parts, rises to the 
top and is often sold separate. When the milk has stood for two or three hours the 
small amount of acid that is formed helps the cream to rise. 

When the milk is boiled the casein hardens and so for babies it is not as nourish- 
ing as the unboiled milk. 

A French chemist, Louis Pasteur, found that heating the milk to 165 kills the 
germs and leaves the casein soft. This preparation is called pasteurized milk. 

If boiled or sterilized milk is left in an open vessel the harmful germs get into it 
again and begin their work. A good way to keep boiled milk is to put it in a bot- 
tle rinsed with boiling water so as to kill the germs the bottle should be corked 
with a piece of absorbent cotton. The air can get through this but the germs can- 
not. 

Bottling milk is a much healthier and wiser way than distributing it from cans. 
The can must be opened at every customer's house and so the germs and dust get 
into the milk. 

When germs get into the milk in the course of time they sour it. 

When milk sours it separates into curds and whey, on account of the bacteria 
which have grown iu it. 



58 

There are two kinds of ferments; the organized and the unorgaiiized : the organ- 
ized ferments are the germs and bacteria and the imorganized are rennet and pepsin ; 
these will also separate into curds and whey. 

The curds contain casein and mineral substances. 

The whey contains sugar water and sonic of the mineral substances. 

A great many things are made from milk. Butter is made l»y churning the cream, 
and the liquid which is left is called buttermilk. Cheese is made by heating the 
milk and adding rennet which separates it into curds and whey. It is then pressed 
so that the whey runs out, pressed again and shaped and has to stand for months so 
that the microbes inside it will have a chance to ripen it. M. R. 

SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON EGGS. 



Production . 



Hen 

Duck 

Turkey 

Goose 



Composition 



Eggs of all birds edible. 

Fowls whose eggs are used for meat 

give greatest number of eggs. 
Negroes of Guinea consider eggs of 

boa constrictor an excellent article 

of food. 
Natives of Senegambia are fond of 

alligators' eggs. 

[Water — regulates temperature of liody ; helps carry off waste 

matters, etc. 
(Albumen — muscle former. 
Oil — heat giver. 
ISalts — bone maker. 



r, i- • v,j. THen, 11 to 2 oz. 

Comparative weights^ j^ - 

of domestic fowls Turkey, 3 to 4 oz. 
®SS8. (Goose, 4 to 6 oz. 



Food value. 



Cooking 



Type of a nearly perfect food ; more nutritious thau twice 
their weight in beefsteak ; yolk most nutritious part. 

rBoiled. 

Baked. 
JFried. 

Omelets. 
(.Used in combination with other ingredients. 



Other uses . 



Antidote in cases of poisoning by lead, arsenic, copper, mer- 
cury. 

Dressing for hair. 

Glue or mucilage. 

Tonic. 

In Russia oil separated from yolk and used medicinally. 

In Middle Ages yolk used for painters' art before discovery of 
oil colors. 



Digestibility 



Preservation 



Raw : Most easily digested form ; not palatable. Added to 
milk, cocoa, beef tea, and many other foods, form an impor- 
tant part of invalid dietary. Digested in from 1^^ to 2 
hours. 

So-called boiled egg : Most agreeable form and very easily 
digested. 

Baked and fried : Very difiScult of digestion ; require from 3 to 
4 hours. Omelets and scrambled eggs not so objection- 
able ; due to mixture of white and yolk and to lightness. 



Keep from contact 
with air; evaporat- 
ing water; desiccat- 
ing. 



Cover with some form of fat. 

Cover with limewater. 

(In both cases put small end down- 
ward and keep in cool, dark place.) 

Bury in earth. (Practiced by the 
Chinese with excellent results.) 



59 

Test of freshness Put in bucket of water. Fresh ones will sink. 

[In New York City amounts to 10 million dollars yearly. 

Commerce <In other cities proportionately large. 

[United States import 15 million dozen yearly. 

I Pope says: "The vulgar boil, the learned roast, an egg." 
(Satire VI.) 
The Persians in a proverb : "If you be a cock, crow; if a hen, 
lay eggs." 
Humpty Dumpty, etc., are well known. 

Architecture Oval form the basis of many beautiful patterns in decoration 

and architecture. 

Customs Hunting eggs at Easter a custom we have copied from the 

Dutch. 



Points to be remem- 
bered. 



Never cook in boiling 
water two minutes 
or more, as ordina- 
rily done. 

Give variety to the 
family by cooking 
the many kinds of 
omelets you have 
learned to prepare. 



Point of coagulation, 130° F. 
Proper point for cooking, 160° to 180°. 
Hard and indigestible if cooked at 
212°, boiling point of water. 



Give onlv the freshest f^'''^^^ ^^^^ cause disorder of the stom- 
„„„„ +„ ;„„„i,vi„ I ach and cause a distaste for this 
eggs to invalids. ) . i v i ^ i 

** [ most valuable food. 

It is best to use lime-kept eggs or those not strictly fresh in 
the preparation of puddings, cakes, etc. 

: M. W. W., Teacher. 



PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON EGGS. 

Eggs. — The shape of an egg is considered one of the most beautiful as many fine 
architects use it for the baoo of columns by modifying it. Dift'erent kinds of eggs 
vary in shape a fowl whose flesh is eaten usually produces oval shape eggs and those 
of the sea fowl are pear shape. 

The hen's egg is the smallest weighing one and a half to two ounces and ostrich 
egg is the largest weighing as much as three dozens of hen's eggs. The egg of the 
hen, duck goose and turkey are the kinds which are mostly used throughout the 
world. 

In Africa the natives live chiefly on the egg of the ostrich and use the shells for 
drinking vessels. 

All civilized and some barbarous nations use eggs as a form of food and consider 
them of more value than twice their weight in beefsteak. Raw eggs are the most 
easily digested and are an excellent food for invalids. In Russia the eggs or roe of 
the sturgeon are made into a dish called caviare which is considered a great luxury. 

All eggs have two parts a white and a yolk, the white is composed of albumen, 
water and salt and the yolk is composed of albumen, water, salt and oil. Eggs 
contain everything necessary for animal life which is proved by the fact of a chick, 
a perfect animal, being hatched from an egg. 

The well known custom of hunting for eggs at Easter was taken from the l>utch. 
One of Pope's saying's is " The vulgar boil, the learned roast, an egg." Many other 
legends are written about eggs. Humpty Dumpty being among them. 

E. F. 



60 



SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON MEAT. 



Materials 



Pictures of animals used as food. 
Cuts of meat. 

Drawings of sides of beef, mutton, lamb, veal, and pork. 
Microscope slides, showing fiber of meat in healthy and dis- 
eased condition; trichime in muscle. 
Picture of grazing cattle. 



[ Chemistry of Cookery. W. Matthieu Williams. 

References < Bulletins and charts issued by United States Department of 

[ Agriculture. 

„. . / Use of animals as food by ancients; what animals were iised; 

"^^^'^^y t tow killed, prepared, etc. 

[Where raised; importance of cleanliness and careful feeding; 

Geography < method of slaughtering and dressing; effect of refrigerating 

I processes and improvements in transportation. 

Effect of climate on kind of meat used. 

Ob' of J To render more sightly and palatable, 
je - • -"I To destroy bacteria and parasites. 

jj^* g. •= ■ Aim — to retain all juices in meat. Expose to great 
Hr ilinCT I ^'^^^ ^^ coagulate albumeu on surface. 
Frvino-" Smaller the piece, greater the heat. 

n fvi I -^"^^ — *^ draw out all the juices. Soak in cold water. 



Cooking 



Principles 



Broth 



Beef tea f Draw out juices, but little if any of nutrients. 

Aim — to draw out part of juices and leave remainder 
Stewing-J in meat. 

Put into cold water, heat gradually to 180°. 



Method of rendering tough cuts tender 
Kinds of meat 



f Animals from which obtained. 
\ Digestibility. 



I Their uses and cost. 
Nutritive value of cuts compared. 
Nutritive value as compared with cost. 
(See charts issued by United States Department of Agriculture.) 

Care of meat Cooked and uncooked. 

Tests of good meat .Color, texture, proportion of fat to mnscnlar fiber. 

( Extravagance of constant use of steaks and chops; high price; 

Cost of meat < amount of waste. 

[ Economy of using cheap cuts in form of stews and made dishes. 



Left overs 



J How to utilize; stews; hash; ragout; croquettes; meatballs- 
■ I Nutritive value of. 



I Rendering and clarifying. 
Importance of saving scraps. 
Necessity for using water to carry off impurities. 
Uses for frying, shortening, etc. 
Surplus to be made into soap. 

I How and where digested. 
Experiments; artificial digestion of different kinds of meat: 
beef, 1 hour; pork, 8 hours. 
Artificial digestion of fats with ox bile. 



U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bui. 56, Office of Expt. Stations. 



Plate VI. 




Diagram of cuts of Beef. 



1. Leg. 


5. 


Porterhouse. 


9. 


Top of sirloin. 


13. Shoulder. 


2. Round. 


6. 


Sirloin. 


10. 


Ribs 


14. Cross ribs 


3. Rump. 


7. 


Navel. 


n. 


Chuck. 


15. Brisket. 


4. Flank steak. 


8. 


Plate. 


12. 


Neck. 


16. Shin. 



Drawn by E. K., age 1 3 years. 



U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bu!. 56. Of .ce cf Expt. S-:3X 



Plate V!I. 




en 4^ w lo — 






33 3)r 

c o «> 



,, 










«^, 


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. 


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NC--- 











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CDC/' 

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U. S Dept. of Agii., Bui. 5c. Office of Expt. Stations. 



Plate VI 




-iG. 1.— Small Loin, or Porterhouse. 



Fig. 2.— Rump of Beef. 

Drawn by J. D. E., age 13 years. 




Fig. 3.— Potato. 

Drawn by M. P., age 14 years. 



U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bui 56, Office of Expt Stations. 



Plate IX. 





\ 



Fig. 1.— a piece of Beef as seen under the Microscope. 

Drawn by L. R., age 1 3 years. 



A 



r^f 



■#* 




Aa 



Q / 



y 



-!<: 



.JlHi'^^ 



I 



Fig. 2.— Individual Beef Fibers as seen under the Microscope. 

Drawn by L. R., age 1 3 years. 



61 

Methods of pre8erv-|^,^^.^^j^g^ «°^«^'°^^ ^^^^^S- 

Structure Fibers shown under microscope. 

^, ... e i Water, fibrin, albumen, gelatine, fat, mineral matter. 

Composition of... .| ^^^ ^^'^^^ ^^[^^ . ^j^sele forming. 

The science teaching will aid children in drawing conclusions which may readily 
be put into practice in their homes, preventing a waste of money and of valuable 
food material. 

It leads them to see that true economy is dignified and that it means not only 
economy of money but also of material. 

The following are some of the facts which are impressed upon the child : 

Don't think that because a pound of sirloin costs twice as much as a pound of 
flank that it is twice as nourishing; it actually contains less nutritive matter. 

Don't keep meat that is left over until it spoils; use it at once. 

Don't eat much pork or any that is underdone. 

Don't boil meat; let it simmer. 

Don't think that because meat falls apart it is tender; connective tissue has been 
softened, but fibers toughened. 

Don't fry in a small amount of fat. 

Don't throw away the dish gravy; it should go into the soup kettle. 

Don't put steak bones into the garbage pail; they will add flavor to a sauce or a 
soup. 

M. I., Teacher. 

PUPILS' EXERCISES ON LESSON ON MEAT. 

Slewed meats. — The tougher cuts of meat, such as, the flank, the leg, the shoulder, 
and in fact all the meats found in the lower part of the animal, require long, slow 
cooking Although cheaper than the tenderer cuts they contain just as much nourish- 
ment, are of better flavor, and may be made palatable in the form of stews. 

To stew meat, cut it into small pieces and trim the edges. Dredge with flour and 
brown in fat. Cover with boiling water or stock and move to the end of the stove 
where it will simmer, not boil. 

Cooking meat iu boiling water toughens the fibres, while if simmered, that is 
cooked at 180 degrees, the meat is rendered tender and digestible. 

Meat which has been boiled, when touched with a fork, will fall apart and seem 
tender, but it is not so, it is because the membranes which have held the fibres 
together, have been softened; but the fibres have been made tough and indigestible. 

Beef stew to serve eight persons. 

Cents. 

2 pounds shoulder 12 

Potatoes 03 

Tomatoes 02 

Parsley. , ^^ 



Celery 
Pepper 
Salt.... 
Onion. 
Flour . . 



'■\ 



.01 



Total cost 19 

E. L., Age 14. 

Meat. — Meat is very nourishing. It is one of the principal foods, and is composed 
of fibren, myosin, water, albumen, fat, and mineral matter. Albumen, myosin, and 
fibren make flesh, and mineral matter makes bone. 

Meat can be cooked in the following ways: Roasted, broiled, stewed, or made 



62 

into broth. The ribs are used for roasting; either chnck, porterhouse, round, and 
surloin may be used for broiling; either chuck, flank, round, neck, shoulder, bris- 
ket, and plate are used for stew; soup meat cornea from the leg; beef oft" the round 
is suitable for beef tea. 

M. H. 

Meat. — Meat is very wholesome if properly cooked, but many people cooked it at 
too high a temperature and not for a sufficient length of time; this is often the 
case in the stewing of meat. It is not always the most expensive meat that is the 
best. If you get a good flank steak which is a very cheap form, it will be as pal- 
atable as the most expensive cut. 

Pork is very hard to digest, and is more likely to be infected than any other form 
of meat. Pork requires six hours for digestion, while beef but one hour; mutton 
about the same time as beef, lamb three to four hours, and veal about five hours. 

K. C, Age 14 years. 

Left overs. — Nobody need throw away any meat. If by chance there should be 
any meat left over from the day before, we can make hash, meat balls, croquettes, 
or potted meat. 

Any of these would serve as meal and if cooked properly would make a delicious 
dish. 

Just as good a stew, can be made with meat which is left over, as with fresh meat. 

These dishes can be improved by adding vegetables, stale bread soaked or made 
into crumbs. 

The nutritive value of potted meat or meat ball can be increased by the addition 
of a cream sauce. 

In cooking meat the second time it is important not to cook it too long as it will 
become tough and very hard to digest. 

P. R., 12 years. 

SYIiLABUS OF LESSON ON BEVERAGES— TEA AND COFFEE. 



Objects used in pre- 
sentinjr the lesson. 



[A tea shrub budding — picture of the flower. 

Leaves of tea (green and black). 
\Picture ol the coffee tree showing the blossom and berries. 

Different coff"ee seeds, unroasted, partly roasted, fully roasted 
y and ground. 



Practical work 



The making of tea and coffee by the girls: 

JJ!K^ni?rnnlContrast. 
(2) Uecoction.j 

The proper preparation of these beverages. 



Principal chemical 
composition. 



Theine. 

Calfein. 

Tannic acid. 

Development of the volatile oils. 

Substances drawn out by — 

(1) Infusion. 

(2) Decoction. 



Physiology . 



[Efifects of these substances — 

(1) Upon the nerves. 
{ (2) Upon digestion. 
Use of beverages to the body. 
I^Suitable beverages for children. 



Preparation of tea for fDiff"erent kiuds of tea. 
exportation. (Quality shown by their names. 



U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bui. 56, Office of Expt. Stations. 



Plate X. 





y 



Fig. 1.— Branches of Tea and Coffee. 

1. Tea (a) bud, (b) flower. 2. Coffee (a) flower, (b) berry. 
Drawn by A. W., age 14 years. 




Fig. 2.— Cereals. 

Drawn by T. D. 



63 

I Milling. 
Koasting. 
Various kinds of coffee and how to distinguish them by their 
names. 

J. B., Teacher, 

PUPILS' EXERCISES ON LESSON ON TEA AND COFFEE. 

Recipes. — The water must be freshly drawn and the minute it has boiled the tea 
and cott'ee should be infused. 

Proportions for tea : 1 teaspoonful of tea to each cup of water. Allow the infusion 
to stand 3 minutes. The tea-pot should be heated before making the tea 

Proportions for coffee : 1 tablespoonful of coffee to each cuji of water allowing this 
infusion to stand from five to seven minutes. The ground coffee should be put into 
a muslin bag or strainer and the boiling water poured over. Never boil coffee, the 
hue flavor is dispelled by boiling a mucilage extracted at the same time, which 
tends to make it flat and weak. All coffee should be ground just before using. 

Tea and coffee.— The only right way to prepare tea and coffee is by infusiou, but 
they are often made by decoction, and when made in this way, they are injurious to 
our bodies. When these beverages are prepared by infusion, the boiling water is 
poured over the tea and coffee, and they only stand a few minutes. Decocted tea 
and coffee are made from boiling water, and boiled. This boiling draws out the 
tannin from the leaves of the tea, and the grounds of the coffee. Tea and coffee 
that are prepared by infusion have a nice pleasant taste, but when they are made by 
decoction, they have a bitter taste, and their pleasant odor and flavor are lost. All 
albumenous foods are hardened and made indigestible by drinking tea and coffee 
that has been boiled. Tea made by decoction causes more indigestion than coffee. 
These beverages are vei-y useful to warm the body when it is cold and cool it. when 
hot; the cooling takes place gradually. They also supply our bodies with the neces- 
sary liquid food. They contain stimulating and refreshing properties, Init are not 
necessary beverages for young people, but a great benefit to older jjeople when 
properly used. It is necessary to have a knowledge of their composition to know 
how to prepare them in the right way. 

There is a substance' in tea and coftee called an alkaloid which causes both these 
beverages to be stimulants. In tea this substance is called thciue and in coffee 
caffeine. Both of these are stimulating properties of tea and coffee. They weaken 
the nerves and take away the natural desire for food. Too much tea or coffee 
weakens the general health and causes nervous diseases. There is also an acid 
called tannic acid in tea, and a volatile oil. This oil is produced in the drying of 
the leaves. It gives the tea its smell and flavor. Coftee also contains tannic acid, 
but not so much as tea. It contains an aromatic volatile oil. This oil gives coftee 
a flavor and smell and is produced in the roasting of the berries. 

H. S., Age IS years. 

Tea and coffee. — Among the principal household beverages are tea and coftee. They 
should not however be used too frequently because they are not foods that repair the 
body although they supply it with some of the necessary liquid food. The only 
liquid necessary to life is water and milk for very young children. 

They contain stimulating and refreshing qualities which in tea is called thiene 
and in coffee caffiene. These act on the nerves as stimulants. When any substance 
is called a stimulant it should be used with care for when our bodies are over-stimu- 
lated weakness in that part is caused and too much tea and coffee cause weak nerves. 
Both tea and coftee contain tannic acid and a volatile oil. This oil is produced in 
the drying of the tea leaves and the roasting of the coftee beans. In making tea or 
coftee it should never be boiled because that draws out the tannin. Infusion draws 
out the thiene, caft'eine, and volatile oils making these beverages refreshing and not 
causing the indigestion of other foods. 



64 

Tea is a njitive of China and Japan b«t it is also grown in Cerlm ud Lkdiai. b 
one year there are four gathezings of the leaves. The &tst ezop is the beet. AStr 
the leaves have been picked they are dned, put in heated pans, dried. noUed. then 
dried again, and then packed in ehests and sent to the different p^urts of the worid. 
Green and blaek tea eome from the same shrub, bat the green tea is dried qnickly 
and the blaek more :>Iov1t. 

Coffee is the seed of an evergreen plant and is largely cultivated in Arabia. Sonth 
Ameriea^ and the West and East Indies. It is allowed to grow irom eight to ten 
feet and bears a pretty white dower which is saceeeiled by a red b»?rry the seeds of 
which are the cotiee b^ans each btrry containing two seeds. The berry is gathered. 
the outer covering is taken off first and then the parctmear-like oovenng which 
covets the two seeds. These see«ls are roastetl in a cylinder-like pan wMeli is tnmed 
over a clear though moderate nre. They are then groond and are ready for ose. 
The Moeha berry is a smaller and rounder berry than any other. Java and East 
Indian are a pale yellow and coffee jorom Brazil has a bloish color. 

A- W., Jjf* 14 uian. 

Beeipm. — The water should be fre^ily drawn and the minute it has boiled the tea 
and coffee infused. 

Ptop«Hti«His tor tea : 1 teaspofmlhl of tea to each cup of water. Allow the infu- 
sion to stand three minutes. The tea-pot shonld be heated befiure making the tea. 

ProptHtkns for coffee : 1 tablespoonfol of coffee to each cup of water, allowing 
this to stand fimn five to seven minutesw The ground coffee should be put into a 
muslin bag or strainer and the boiling water poured over. Never boil coffee, the 
fine flavor is dispelled by boiling and a mucilage is extracted at the same time 
which tends to make it flat and weak All coffee should be ground j ast before using. 

SYIiIiABUS OF LESSON ON DIGESTION. 

To a thorough understanding of the nutrition of the body, a knowledge of th«>se 
processes by which the food becMnes part of the blood is most necessary ; a knowl- 
edge of the normal conditions and the eaosee and effects of abnormal states of the 
digestive organs. 

This requires a clear conception of the anatomy and physiology of the entire tract, 
and of the effects of various food sinfls and o^er substances on its work, and the 
result of different bo«iiIy conditions. 

In presenting this subject to the pnpU we have endeavored to bring it in a tangi- 
ble foim to the comprehensifm throng sight, by the use of manikin, specimens, and 
various e3Lperiments. 
Salivary digestion : 

Anatomy of the month — 
Tongue; its use. 

Teetii; their necessity, need for are. The effect on digestion of their loss. 
Mucous membrane: texture, exp'^rin-rnrs to show effect of astringents, as 

tannin in tea and coffee. 
SdUva; structure of salivary glands: 
Fran what saliva is made. 
How it reaches the mouth. 
Test for alkalinity. 

Experiments showing its effect on cooked md raw starch. 
Effe<-'t of slight adds 4^ its function, showing the cessation of salivaxy 
digesti<Ma in the stomach. (^This points out the need of thorough i 
tication of starchy foods.; 
Esophagus: 

Stmeture; aetiimofmnseks in swallowing. 
Membrane. 



65 

Gastric digestion: 

Anatomy of stomach — 

Situation. (Distention may inipedt- heart action.) 
Microscopical examination of lining. 
Muscles; action. 
Gastric juice; where made, action shown by experiments, interference of its 
work shown by various substances (superacidity, etc.). (This teaches the 
result of large quantities of vinegar, etc.). Effect of fatty acids produced in 
frying, erttect of ice water. 
Causes of fermentation, of vomiting in infants. 
Absorption of digested substances. 
Intestinal digestion : 

Anatomy; microscopical examination of lining. 

Juices; where formed, chemical composition, their actions on foods, experiments. 

Vermicular motion of tract explained by means of rubber tube. 

Value of some indigestible material. 

Causes of constipation; preventive and remedy. 
Diarrhea; causes and remedy. 
Comparative spaces for digestion of starches and albuminoids in the digestive tract. 
Effects on the digestive action of various bodily conditions; nervousness, fatigue, etc. 
Kinds of food indicated in some digestive disturbances. 

E. H. C. Teacher. 

PUPILS' EXERCISES ON LESSON ON DIGESTION. 

Digestion. — The teeth are very important to the process of digestion, as we cannot 
chew our food very well without them; we should be careful to keep them free from 
particles of food, to do nothing that may crack the enamel, for the least break will 
give the microbes a place in which to settle and cause the decay of the teeth. The 
lirsi set of teeth is called the milk teeth and the second set is called the perma- 
nent set. 

The mouth is moistened by a Huid manufactured from the blood and flows from 
little glands under the jaw and ears into the mouth; this is called saliva and is 
alkaline, that is, it turns blue litmus red. It contains a substance called ptyalin 
which digests the starth we eat. 

lu our last lesson we made some experiments in the digestion of starch and found 
that saliva digested cooked starch and changed it into dextrin. A drop of iodin in 
starch always turns blue; but after this experiment the iodin did not change color. 
This shows us that it was no longer starch. This new substance, dextrin, is the 
form into which starch must be digested to enter the blood. 

We also tested the digestion of starch with a drop of acid and found that saliva 
did not digest the starch when the acid was present ; we then tried the same experi- 
ment with a little vinegar ; again we found that the saliva did not digest the starch. 

This shows that we should not eat any uncooked starch,- and as acids interfere 
with the digestion of starch, they should not be eaten with it, nor will it be digested 
in the stomach which is acid. 

C. G., Age 13 years. 

Digestion. — When our food is masticated it passes down into the stomach through 
the esophagus or food pipe, which opens and closes again as the food moves along. 
By means of this wave-like motion the food passes along the entiie digestive tract. 

The stomach and intestines are situated in the abdomen. The food remains in the 
stomach some time, where it is churned about and some of it digested; then it con- 
tinues its course into the duodenum, the upper part of the small intestine. 

In the stomach is a slightly acid juice, called gastric juice ; this digests only nitro- 
genous foods. 

We made some experiments to see how meat was acted upon by the gastric juice; 
we made same artiticial gastric juice by disolving pepsin in some water and adding 
9900— No. 50 5 



66 



a drop of hydrochloric acid. Pepsin is the digestive part of gastric juice. We put 
a small piece of meat iuto this in a test tuhe and stood it iu a glass of water, which 
we kept at the temperature of the stomach. At the end of our lessou the piece of 
meat was very much smaller, it was heiug gradually dissolved Ly the gastric juice. 
With a larger amount of acid the meat dissolved much more slowly, showing us 
that large quantities of acid food, like vinegar, iuterfere with the work of the 
stomach. We found that alkali also hindered the work of digestion. The delicate 
membrane lining the stomach is very much irritated bj' fatty acids of fried foods. 
The duodenum is very obliging, for it finishes the digestion of the substances that 
were not completed in the mouth and stomach. Materials that are not digestible, 
like the woody fiber of vegetables, are passed along the intestines in a wave-like 
manner and removed from the body. We should have some indigestible matter to 
keep the movement, and prevent constipation. Drinking plenty of water helps in 
tbis. B. L. L. 



SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON FUEL AND COMBUSTION. 
Coal 



Exhibition 
rials. 



of mate- 



Fuel, earlv historv . 



Coal 



Charcoal 



Gas 



Combustion 



I Hard. 
I Soft. 



Wood.... 

Charcoal. 
Coke. 



J Hard. 

■ i Soft. 



f(l) Used by prehistoric man. 
(2) Method of igniting. 



(2) 
[(3) Kinds — formation. 

(1) Importance — influence u]»on commerce. 

(2) Formation. 

(3) Geology. 

(4) Chemical changes of wood — composition of coal. 

(5) Kinds — usage. 

(6) Geography. 



[(1) Origin — method of formation. 

(2) Composition of wood — elements 
' combustion of wood. 

(3) Residue. 

1(4) Ancient and modern usage. 



(1) Formation. 

(2) Two flames 



driven oft' by partial 



/ Blue, used in cooking. 

{ Yellow, used to illuminate. 



(3) Experiments with 
Bunsen burner 
to show perfect ; 
and imperfect 
combustion. 



(a) Flames supplied with oxygen 

through openings in lower part 
of burner; also by surrounding 
air — result, flame blue; perfect 
combustion. 

(b) Openings in burner closed — re- 

sult, flame yellow; imperfect 
combustion — incandescent car- 
bon. 



(4) Study of gas) («) Advantages. 

stove. [{b) Economy in using. 

(1) Chemistry. 



(2) Study of coal, 
stove. 



(3) Oxygen 



(a) Drafts. 
(6) Placing. 

(c) Kindling point. 

(d) Products of combustion. 

(e) Cinders. 
(/) Ashes. 

(a) Proportion in air. 

(b) Eft'ect upon earth if air all oxygen 



'J. S. Dept of Agri , Bui. 56, Office of Expt. Stations. 



Plate XI. 



Fig. 1.— Apparatus for generating Oxygen. 

Drawn by A. WlcC. 




Fig. 2.— Articles used in Cleaning. 

Drawn by I. G. 



67 

-r, . , I Watch spriiiii heated to kiudlin<j point and bnrned in pure 

J^xpenment ^^ oxygen. ■" 

Note. — The practical benefit to be derived from this lesson by the children is the 
making and care of a coal tire; a knowledge of the comparative value of fuels and 
economy in the use of them. 

D. I<:. M., Teacher. 

PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON FUEL AND COMBUSTION. 

Fuel. — Fuel is material used to produce heat by combustion. 

Fuel of some kiiul is used by man to render food more palatable and digestible. 

The first fuel used was dry twigs and branches of trees. 

ISefore people had matches they rubbed two pieces of hard wood together and 
lighted the twigs by the sparks. 

Fuel originated trom vegetable matter which grew upon the earth many ages ago 
ill the form of trees. These trees fell to the earth and gradually sunk below the 
surface, they passed through chenucal changes until they were reduced to an impure 
form of carbon called coal. Coal is found in the United States, Great Britain, France, 
Belgium and Germany. 

In our homes we generally use anthracite or hard coal but if we do not feed it with 
plenty of oxygen, it will not burn. All carbon readily unites with the oxygen of 
the air. 

The fire is hottest when a blue and white flame comes up, but some people think 
it is hottest when it is red but it soon becomes low as most of the gas is burned away. 

We should not put on coal up to the lids only up to the top of fire-box or the iron 
will become warped. We should put coal on lightly and often. 

Bituminous or soft coal is cheaper but it gives out a great deal of smoke this is 
free carbon. Soft coal is generally used on railroad cars. If you take notice when 
you are sitting near an open window you will see little pieces flying about. 

Gas is obtained from coal. There are two flames yellow and blue. The blue flame 
is the one to cook on as it is better fed by oxygen. The yellow flame is used to 
illuminate as it contains incandescent carbon if we should cook on it the cooking 
utensils would become black from the carbon. 

Experiment to show that all substances will unite with oxygen when heated to 
kindling point. We took a flask and put in it some potassium chlorate and manga- 
nese dioxid and heated them. Tlie oxygen was driven off through a glass tube into 
a bottle of water. The gas crowded out the water; then we took a piece of steel 
and lighted some sulphur on the end of it and put it in the oxygen, the sulphur 
heated the steel up to its kindling point and it burned. 

So we know if the air was all oxygen every thing in the world would be consumed. 

Charcoal is wood burned without much air reaching it. It is an impure form of 
carbon. There was not enough oxygen to burn it. A. F. H. 

SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON CHEMISTRY OP CLEANING. 

I.— Household Cleanliness. 
(rt) What it means: 

(1) Keeping all portions of the house, both seen and unseen, free from risible and 
inrisihle uncleanliness. 
(a) Visible uncleanliness : 

Dust and dirt of various kinds — grease and other spots on wood- 
work, metal, marble, fabrics, etc. 
(a) Invisible uncleanliness: 

That caused by invisible particles of living matter floating in the air, 
usually occurring in dark, damp recesses, as waste pipes, drains, 
water-closets, pipes from tubs, etc. Closets and dark cupboards. 



68 

II. — Dust and what it Contains. 

{a) Tyndall's experiment. (An account of.) 

{b) Matter in dust easily detected. 

<c) Matter in dust not easily detected : 

(Use of microscope.) Showing moldy bread, cheese, lemon, etc. Flour and 
water exposed to air for several hours. Explanation of causes of these con- 
ditions. Explanation of causes of unpleasant odors sometimes coming from 
dark, damp places. 

III. — Aids to Household Cleanliness. 

(a) A desire to be clean. 

(h) Plenty of fresh air and sunshine. 

(c) Free use of soap and water. 

{dj Ammonia, washing powders, washing soda, kerosene, polishing reagents. 

IV. — Chemical Nature op' Soap. 

(a) Alkalis used, f What happens when they are allowed to unite. Illustrated by 

(b) Fat used [ the making of soap. 

v.— How TO use "Aids to Cleanliness." 

(a) Sunlight — kills germs; prevents their growth. 

{b) Air, its composition; oxygen, its use and importance. 

(f) Soap and water for almost all cleansing purposes. 

(d) Ammonia, soda, and potash nu>re powerful cleansers. When, where, and how 

to use them. 
(<*) Polishing reagents: 

(1) Why metals become tarnished, rusted, etc. 

• Copper + zinc = l)rass. Brass acted upon by oxygen of air forming an 
oxid. 
Silver acted upon by sulphur. 

Iron, in presence of moisture acted upon by oxygen of air^irou rust. 
Nickel not acted upon by oxygen. 

(2) Dififerent preparations used to remove tarnish, rust, dirt. Explanation of 

their mechanical and chemical action upon metals. 

YI._Caue of Dish Towels, Dish Cloths, etc. 

<«) Necessity of thorough washing in warm water and soap after each using; rinsing 
in clear warm water; drying in air and sunlight. 
Growth of germs very rapid on dishcloths unless treated in above manner. 

VII.— Sweeping and Dusting. 

<rt) Best methods of obtaining desired results. 

(6) We sweep and dust to remove the dirt, not to stir it iq> and let it settle in another 
place. 

YIII.— Care of Sink, Garbage Pail, etc. 
(a) Sink. 

Use of hot water and soda. 

Use of strainer. » 

Explanation of trap and its careful treatment. 
{b) Garbage pail. 

. Careful and thorough washing aud drying, 
(c) Disposal of garbage. 

By means of experiments, explanations, aud the use of the microscope the pupils' 



U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bui. 56, Office of Expt. Stations. 



Plate XII. 





Fig. 1.— Sewer Traps: /J, c» Trap; B, o Trap. 

Drawn by K. T. 



Jk 



i- 



\ • r 



V 



^L 



Fig. 2.— Sink, showing "Half-w" Trap. 

Drawn by L. E. W. 



69 

minds are put in a questioning attitude, and daily more and more questions are 
aaked. Most of the answers can be based upon scientific laws and principles, simply- 
explained. These questions, relative to both cooking and cleaning, come not only 
from the pupils, but from the parents (through the children), showing that at home 
these matters are talked over. 

C. G. J., Teacher. 

PUPIL'S EXERCISE ON LESSON ON CHEMISTRY OF CLEANING. 

The kitchen sirik. — In olden times, sinks were not common! j^ known but, as the years 
have rolled on, changes came, and great improvements were made. Wooden sinks 
were first used, but they were very hard to keep clean, as the grease was liable to 
soak through the wood and cause bad odors. Now, iron sinks lined with porcelain, 
plain iron, andsoapstone sinks nre used. They are indeed very pleasing to the eye, 
and make kitchens look very clean and inviting, if kept neatly. 

The faucets are fixed (m the upper part of the sink, so that the water may flow 
down into the sink. They are made of brass or nickel and must be polished often. 

A trap is a contrivance with a sort of bend in the pipe, which enables a small 
amount of water to be placed between the sewer and the dwelling; this preventing 
the entrance of sewer gases. There are different kinds of traps and the ones used 
on almost every sink in the city of New York are the CO or half CO traps (PI. XII, 
fig. IJ). 

There are many other kinds of traps among the most important are the " O," (PI. 
XII, fig. B) "Bottle," "Round," and " Bag " traps. 

Germs carried by sewer gas may cause most serious diseases, so upon the care of 
these traps largely dej>ends the health of I'amilies. Unless the trap holds a certain 
amount of water, sufficient to form a seal to prevent gas from entering kitchens, it 
is of no value. Kitchen tra])s are difficult to keep clean and in good condition, as 
much grease is carried off by the dish water. When it enters the trap and waste 
pipe, it cools and clings to the sides. If a solution of washing soda and hot water 
Is poured down the sink frequently, this can be prevented. Soda has the power of 
breaking the particles of fatty matter into very small parts, and then the hot water 
washes the matter away. A strainer should always be placed at the outlet and should 
be kejit perfectly clean. I have seen careless servants scrape the leavings from plates 
into the sink, and try to wash little pieces of bones and sorts of food down the out- 
let. Perhaps illness has been caused by this uncleanliness. To be sure that this 
shall not happen, we must keei> not only the trap of the kitchen sink clean and pure 
but all other traps as well. 

K. T. 

NOTES PROM THE CHILDREN'S EXERCISE BOOKS. 

In looking over the notebooks of the children, also i)laced at the disposal of the 
author, it was found that the following facts were noted, which show clearly the 
basic principles of the instruction given : 

C. S. says : " Starch is a heat-giving comi)ound ■ * * ■' it is a fine white powder 
composed of little granules. * * * Cold water has no effect upon starch granules, 
but boiling water bursts them. " * * When baking powder is put in flour, 
mixed, and moistened, the gas formed fills the flour with little bubbles, which form 
holes in the dough; when the mixture is put in the oven it hardens the dough about 
the little holes formed by the bubbles of gas, and the mixture is light and porous. 
* * * Yeast is the simplest form of plant life and consists of little cells which 
expand and grow very rapidly. * ^ * Lii^e ,,|j plants, it requires heat and 
moisture; * * * it is called a ferment because it causes fermentation in dough." 
J. G. says, in a lesson on the chemistry of food: "Food repairs the body by mak- 
ing flesh or muscle and by giving heat. * * * The heat or temperature of the 
body is about 98 degrees. * ^^ This heat is produced by combustion. One ele- 

ment alone will not nourish tL I'uJy. * * * All food compounds are necessary. 



70 

* * * They are water, salt, mineral, fat, starch, sugar, and uitrogeuons mat- 
ter. ^ * * Albumen is a llesh-formiug compound and is easily digested; it 
thickens by heat, fibrin by exjjosure to the air, casein by an acid." 

F. S. speaks of the parts of an egg as follows: "Parts of the egg: Shell, mem- 
brane, white, yolk. Tests for fresh eggs: Light, water, shake. How to keep eggs 
fresh : Packed in closed boxes, sawdust, place in brine, limewater, cover with fat or 
varnish." 

Albumen (Albus-white). [Heat. 

-^„ -, ,. f Citric (lemon). 

Effect on albumen ot Uda ... Acetic (vine>;ar). 

[Muriatic or hydrochloric. 
I^Alcohol. 

C. L. says: " Food is that which is taken into the body to build up new material, 
to repair worn-out tissue, and to yield heat and energy. There are two classes of 
food — flesh formers, or nitrogenous, and heat givers, or carl)onaceous. There are 
three classes of carbonaceous foods — fat, starch, sugar. Water is found in all foods. 
Mineral matter is found in all foods; helps to build up the bones " 

A. K. says: ''Cellulose is the woody fiber of the potato. * - * Cellulose forms 
the walls of the cells which holds the starch grains. *^ * * Cold water has uo 
effect on starch. Hot water breaks the starch cells and renders them fit for food. 
Potatoes contain water, starch, cellulose, albumen, and potash salts." 

S. T. gives the chemical composition of the potato as follows: Water, 75; starch, 
18; fat, 0.3; mineral matter, 1; nitrogenous matter, 1; cellulose, 1; acid, 1; sugar, 2. 
She notes further: "How do we show that potatoes contain starch? By putting 
iodin in it; if it becomes blue, it contains starch. What other part did the experi- 
ment show us? It showed us the water and acid." 

K. McG. says : " Skim-milk is as valuable as pure milk, only it ditfers in what it is 
composed of; it does not contain fat, but is nutritious if it does lack fat; it contains 
nitrogenous matter."' 

J. McW. says, in a note on starch : " After any food has commenced to boil reduce 
the temperature and allow it to simmer; we do this to avoid wasting fuel and pre- 
vent breaking of vegetable and also to prevent a hardening of albumen which many 
foods contain." 

Among M, O.'s notes, it is stated that: "Food is that which is taken into thebodj- 
to build up new tissue, to rejjair worn-out tissue, and to yield heat and energy." 

In E. W.'s notes was found the following: "Rice contains more starch than any of 
the other grains; * ** * it is the most easily digested; * * * four-fifths 
of rice being starch, it should be eaten with some nitrogenous food, such as milk or 
eggs."' 

A. Q. says : " Is there starch in flour? We can find that there is starch in flour bj' 
putting a little into ii glass with a little water, put in a drop of iodin, stir it, and 
when it turns blue we know it contains starch." 

The above record with notes gives indubitable evidence of the fact that it is not 
simply cooking that the children are learning in tliese classes in the New York City 
public schools. 

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LB Mr '07 



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